THE PIROTECHNIA of
mNNOCCIO BIRINGUCCIO
The Classic Sixteenth-Century
Treatise on Metals and Metallurgy
Translaied and Edited by
Cyril Stanley Smith and MarthaTeach Gnudi
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THE PIROTECHNIA of
VANNOCCIO BIRINGUCCIO
THE PIROTECHNIA of
VANNOCCIO BIRINGUCCIO
The Classic Sixteenth-Century
Treatise on Metals and Metallurgy
Translated From the Italian
With an Introduction and Notes
BY Cyril Stanley Smith and
Martha Teach Gnudi
DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.
New York
669 Bb33p 19^0
Biringucci, Vannoccio,
1480-1539?
The pirotechnia ot
Vannoccio Biringuccio :
1990.
Published in Canada by General Publishing Company, Ltd.,
30 Lesmill Road, Don Mills, Toronto, Ontario.
Published in the United Kingdom by Constable and Company,
Ltd., 10 Orange Street, London WC2H yEG.
This Dover edition, first published in 1990, is an unabridged
and unaltered republication ofthe edition published in 1959 by The American
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Inc.
The 1959 edition was a slightly revised and corrected republication of
the edition first published by the same organization in 1942 and 1943.
Manufactured in the United States of America
Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street,
Mineola, N.Y. 11501
Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Biringuccio, Vannoccio, 1480-1539?
[De la pirotechnia. English]
The pirotechnia of Vannoccio Biringuccio : the classic six¬
teenth-century treatise on metals and metallurgy / translated from
the Italian with an introduction and notes by Cyril Stanley Smith
and Martha Teach Gnudi.
p. cm.
Translation of: De la pirotechnia.
Reprint. Originally published: Pirotechnia. New York : Basic
Books, 1959.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-486-26134-4
I. Metallurgy—Early works to 1800. 2. Metal-work—Early
works to 1800. 3. Mineral industries—Early works to 1800.
I. Title.
TN664.B5713 1990
669—dc20 89-29572
CIP
3 1223 04589 0267
FOREWORD TO THE FIRST ISSUE
MONG the highly skilled craftsmen of the Renaissance were
those who worked with ores and metals. The author ofthis
book, Vannoccio Biringuccio, was a master craftsman in the
practices of smelting and of metalworking. Contrary to the
customs of a trade, Biringuccio was moved to impart his
knowledge to all and thus he has given us the earhest hand¬
book on metallurgy—in fact, the first printed book dealing with the apphed
metal arts and the processes of ore reduction. We should remind ourselves
that metallurgy is an ancient art and then it fairly may be said that Biringuccio
sought to describe the techniques that had been in course of development
since the Bronze Age ofwestern civilization. Whether Biringuccio was a man
of learning or a scholar according to the standards of his time we do not
know, but today we recognize him as a man ofscience who gave his wisdom
to succeeding generations. It was not until the coming of the Power Age at
the end ofthe eighteenth century that progress was resumed in the science of
which he wrote more than two hundred years before.
Little is known ofBiringuccio’s training in his native Siena. It can be sur¬
mised that there, as in Florence, where his contemporary Benvenuto Cellini
hved, he received his training in the craftsman shops where the industrial
arts were taught and flourished alongside the fme arts. Perhaps he and Cellini
were acquainted, although there is no mention of Biringuccio in Cellini’s
autobiography—an omission that Cellini’s vast egotism makes understand¬
able. He was the great artist, and Biringuccio was a practical, studious, un¬
romantic figure with no favors to dispense.
In the April 1940 issue of Mining and Metallurgy Dr. Smith describes
Biringuccio’s book under the title of “A Neglected Italian Metallurgical
Classic.” The article, revised and extended, forms the basis of the introduc¬
tion to the present volume, and I urge all who take up Pirotechnia to read
what Dr. Smith has written in the Introduction. Biringuccio’s work is a
classic and in its translation Dr. Smith and Dr. Gnudi have brought to bear
the high degree of scholarship that it deserves. Dr. Gnudi made the trans¬
lation at Dr. Smith’s request and it was then refined “in the fire” of his
scientific knowledge of the subject. The result is a book which the Institute
is proud to place before its members and which the Memorial Fund Com¬
mittee considers it a privilege to pubhsh.
VI PIROTECHNIA
Both in content and format the book departs from the usual run ofpapers
of a technical society. We hope the departure will be received with approval
and that the sage observations and the faculty for accurate description ofthe
sixteenth-century Itahan metallurgist will strike a responsive chord or lead
to an interesting train of thought as comparisons are made between old
methods and the modern manner of doing the same things. Often such
comparisons will prove that, basically, the old and the new are not far
different. History teaches us not to belittle but to applaud those who have
preceded us in all fields ofhuman endeavor.
Harvey S. Mudd
April, ig42
FOREWORD TO THE REISSUE
9|V*|Hn T has been almost exactly twenty years since Mrs. Gnudi
n|lBn 1 lirst corresponded regarding the possibility ofmaking a
hIiI Pirotechnia. It is amusing—now—to recall
Km E|f2 manuscript was declined by four publishers and that
even the AIME succumbed only after a rather intensive sales
campaign. Although Carl Rollins’ interest in printing it en¬
sured that the book would be ofunusual beauty, we did not expect that it
would become a rarity, and the 1500 copies printed in 1942 and 1943 were
believed to be more than adequate to meet any possible demand! At the
end ofthe war, however, the stock was rapidly exhausted and copies be¬
came difficult to find. This new issue, it is hoped, will be read by more
than the metallurgists and scholars who were originally expected to con¬
stitute the whole audience. It is a photographic copy of the 1943 print¬
ing, in which a few typographical errors in the first were corrected and the
index somewhat extended. The method of reproduction precludes ex¬
tensive changes; otherwise, the translators would have liked to polish up
an occasional sentence and to replace the word “fumosities” with the con¬
temporary English phrase “smoky exhalations.”
If the introductory article on Biringuccio’s place in the literature of
science and metallurgy were to be rewritten today, it would be longer (and
perhaps duller) but in essence it would remain unchanged. The history of
a literature ofany kind cannot be studied without its slow evolution being
evident; each separate successive achievement isjust a small extension of a
continuous growth that began with man’s first thought. Although Birin￾guccio is truly outstanding and the influence of his book was very great,
it is the fact and manner ofhis writing rather than his information that dis¬
tinguishes himfromsome ofhis contemporaries. An extensivemetallurgical
knowledge is attested by many works of armourers, jewellers, and bell￾founders before his day, and even some of his words may be traced to
fragmentary earlier writings. Nevertheless, the contrast between Birin￾guccio and, for example, the laconic notes in the Probierbuchlein, on the one
hand, and the elaborate philosophical incunabulae, on the other, is equally
great. The Pirotechnia marks the beginning of a true technological litera¬
ture, with both craftsmanship and science united by a writer’s pen to form
a record ofan importantfacet ofman’s achievement as a stimulus to further
advance.
PIROTECHNIA viii
Since this translation first appeared, there has developed a more wide¬
spread interest in the history ofscience and with it deeper appreciation of
the importance of the careful observations recorded by men who were
actually working with materials. Several sources of early metallurgical
science and practice have been made newly available, as can be seen in the
addition to the bibliography on page 465. For the first time a good history
of technology has appeared in English—the simultaneously monumental
and readable History of Technology edited by Charles Singer and his col¬
laborators. The historical background of chemistry has been summarized
by H. M. Leicester and a well-balanced history of all branches ofscience
given by A. R. Hall. The change in the manner ofman’s thinking which
marked “the origins of modem science” is lucidly treated by Herbert
Butterfield. R.J. Forbes and H. R. Schubert deal, respectively, with an¬
cient metallurgy as a whole and with the early iron and steel industry in
Great Britain.
These works and many others in the growing literature lend support to
the view that, although modern science and technology are advancing at
a dizzying pace, they are, after all, human activities. Perhaps the study of
the past of science, alongside the politics and culture that have hitherto
been most of“history,” will lead to a better understanding ofthe nature of
science. Its impact on social institutions may then be less shattering, and per¬
haps even the institutions themselves may come to participate in the ever￾improving adaptation to purpose that is the aim oftechnologists.
The engineer is the man whose professional responsibility it is to bridge
the gap between science and society, and this gap should be bridged from
both shores. The engineer’s education has not always fitted him for this
role; indeed, he has sometimes excelled in narrowness. Perspective is easier
to achieve in relation to the past than to the present. It is hoped that by
reading the Pirotechnia the technologist will better understand not only
Biringuccio’s times, but himself. And perhaps the layman will not only
catch some ofthe excitement ofthinking how to build things (which can
be as creative an activity as that indulged in by some artists) but also, by
gaining a deeper understanding of the roots of today’s technological
civilization, be better able to direct society toward a more noble future.
Cyril Stanley Smith
Institutefor the Study ofMetals
The University ofChicago
November, ig^8
INTRODUCTION
Life ofBiringuccio,
IRINGUCCIO was born in Siena in 1480, the son of Paolo
and Lucrezia di Bartolommeo Biringuccio.* He was baptized
on October 20 of that year with the given names Vannoccio
Vincenzio Austino Luca. His father appears to have been an
architect, for in 1504 he was paid 600 scudi for his work on
the walls of the Communal Palace and at the same time he
was superintendent ofstreets for the city.
The course ofBiringuccio’s life followed closely the checkered fortunes of
the Petrucci family of Siena. A warm supporter ofP,andolfo Petrucci, Birin¬
guccio did not falter in his allegiance to the family and their party during his
hfetime. It was probably to the protection and patronage ofthis lord that he
was indebted for the opportunity to travel widely through Italy and into
Germany during his early years and so to lay the foundation for the extensive
knowledge ofthe subjects he was to describe in the Pirotechnia. In 1507, as he
himself indicates (p. 48), he was in Friuli and Carnia in northern Italy after
having traveled in Germany, and he also visited the brass works in Milan.
After returning to Siena, he was sent by Pandolfo to direct the iron mines in
near-by Boccheggiano.
When Pandolfo died in 1512 (in which year Biringuccio’s father also died),
Biringuccio continued to support the Petrucci family in the person of Pan￾dolfo’s son, Borghese, who succeeded to the rule. Under his patronage,
Biringuccio was appointed to a post in the Armoury ofthe Siena Commune
in 1513.
In 1515 a popular uprising forced Borghese and his followers, including
Biringuccio, to flee from Siena. Biringuccio and the goldsmith Francesco
Castori, head ofthe mint, were accused of having debased the coinage alloy
with the knowledge and consent of Borghese. When he failed to appear in
1516 to answer these charges—which may well have been invented by the
opposing pohtical faction—Biringuccio was declared a rebel and was exiled
as a traitor to the Republic. He then traveled about Italy, was in Rome and
Naples, and visited Sicily in 1517.
* Facts for this sketch are derived in the main from the introduction to Vol. I of the
critical edition of the Pirotechnia published by Aldo Mieli at Bari in 1914. and from the
article on Biringuccio in the Enciclopedia Biografica e Bibliograjica Italiana, Serie L, “Armi ed
Armaioli,” Milan, 1939.
PIROTECHNIA xii
kept metallurgical knowledge alive by the spoken rather than the written
word. Eventually there appeared a metalworker who could also write, and it
was natural that he should be attached to the Church. It was a monk, The￾ophilus, who, somewhere around the year iioo, and probably in Germany,
wrote a lengthy treatise describing the casting and working of metals and
alloys, together with many other operations involved in the making of
ecclesiastical works of art. This manuscript, entitled Schedula diversarum
artium, is the earliest source* to contain descriptions written in the manner
of the man who has “black’d his fingers and sing’d his beard in metaUick
operations.” Theophilus writes for the individual metalworker, and it is the
scale of operation rather than the nature of the processes that chiefly distin¬
guishes his work from those of five centuries later. There are no known
manuscripts on metalworking prior to the sixteenth century except a few
copies ofTheophilus.
Artists have produced representations ofthe metalworker, some ofwhich
provide information on the techniques employed. There are, for example,
the fourteenth-century bell founders’ window at York, the fifteenth-century
etching of St. Dunstan in his goldsmith’s shop by the anonymous Master of
the Amsterdam Cabinet, two German fifteenth-century “Housebooks”f
(one ofwhich contains drawings that are probably by the same Amsterdam
master), andjost Amman’s celebrated series ofwoodcutsf in 1568.
There are no books on metallurgy among the incunabula. The first printed
* The best edition ofTheophilus’ Latin text is that given by W. Theobald (1933) with
a German translation and very comprehensive notes that arc invaluable to the technologi¬
cal historian. An English translation was pubhshed by Robert Hendrie in 1847. The
bibliographic study by D. V. Thompson, Jr. (“The Schedula of Theophilus Presbyter,”
Speculum, 1932, 7, 199-220) and his review ofthe Theobald edition {Speculum, 1935, 10,
437-440) provide a reliable discussion on the differences between the various copies and on
the vexed question of the date of the original. The two earliest manuscripts extant are
generally considered to have been made in the twelfth century, though certain scholars,
on paleological evidence, assign one ofthese to the tenth century. Theobald accepts this
earlier date, though Thompson does not.
f The so-called Mittelalterliche Hausbuch is a collection of drawings, many of which are
of a technological nature and all of which show a high standard of artistic excellence,
made in the year 1480. A facsimile reproduction under the editorship ofH. T. Bossert and
W. F. Stork appeared in 1912. The Nurnberg Hausbuch was a collection of drawings
showing various trades made for the merchant house of Mendel over the years 1426 to
1541. No complete facsimile has appeared, but the little book, Deutsches Handwerk im
Mittelalter, published as Insel-Bucherei No. 477, reproduces the illustrations.
fJost Amman, Eigentliche Beschreibung aller Stande aufErden . .. (Frankfort, 1568). The
114 woodcuts ofvarious trades and crafts are described in briefrhymes by Hans Sachs. An
edition with Latin text by Hartmann Schopper was issued the same year.
INTRODUCTION Xlll
books related to our subject are the Niitzlicher Bergbiichlein and the Probier￾biichlein ofthe early sixteenth century, both ofwhich have been discussed by
the Hoovers* and by Darmstaedter.'j' The Probierbiichlein in particular must
be considered in relation to Biringuccio’s chapters on assaying. Five editions
of this httle work had appeared before Biringuccio’s death, though there is
nothing to indicate that he drew from them in writing his Pirotechnia. They
contain descriptions of several different systems of assay weights, propor¬
tioned to the many local systems ofweights then in use, and briefdescriptions
of assaying technique, exclusively for gold and silver in spite ofa more com¬
prehensive title.
Agricola’s first work on mining, Bermannus, was published in 1530. It was
known to Biringuccio, for he acknowledges it as a source for certain informa¬
tion on silver ores. It is mainly devoted to a correlation ofthe minerals known
to the ancients with those found in the Saxon mines. In approach it is similar
to the same author’s scholastic De Mensuris et Pondibus (1533) which discussed
Roman, Greek, and other ancient systems ofweight and measure.
Starting with the Rechter Gebrauch d'Alchimei of 1531, and the Drei schoner
kimstreicher Biiclilein of 1532, a series of Kunstbuchlein or “Books of Secrets”
was pubhshed in the sixteenth century in several countries.| These grew by a
process of accretion and contained, in the form of recipes, information on
everything from cosmetics to medicines and metallurgy. The most complete
of these was the Secreti of Alessio Piemontese, first pubhshed in Venice in
1555 and frequently reprinted and translated. Biringuccio could have seen the
Kunstbuchlein editions of 1531, 1532, 1533, 1534, 1537 (two), though it is
doubtful iftheir brieftreatment would have been helpful to one so versed in
practical operations as he.
The significance of writers hke Biringuccio can only be appreciated after
some study ofalchemy.§ The medieval alchemists devoted untold effort to the
investigation of metallic reactions, yet produced very httle of value to the
metaUurgist. To them the copper-zinc ahoy produced by heating copper
with a strange earth was an inferior gold and not copper with improved
* H. C. & L. Hoover, Georgius Agricola, De re metallica (English translation, 1912),
Appendix B, pp. 609-614.
f Ernst Darmstaedter, Berg-, Probier- und Kunstbuchlein (1926).
j For bibliographic information on these works see Darmstaedter {loc. cit.) and Fer¬
guson, “Some Early Treatises on Technological Chemistry,” Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow,
1887 to 1912.
§The book Prelude to chemistry (London, 1936) by John Read provides a fascinating
summary ofthe literature and purposes of alchemy.
XIV PIROTECHNIA
properties. A. J. Hopkins* shows how alchemy may have developed out of
the Grecian metalworker’s knowledge ofthe art ofcoloring metals. With the
Aristotehan emphasis on quahties as the significant aspect of matter, such
superficial transformations were real and fitted into a consistent and reason¬
able system. Toward the end of the first millennium of the Christian era,
alchemy came to be overlaid with mystical theory, and the voluminous writ¬
ings ofthe later alchemists contain very Httle either ofintelligible information
on the behavior ofmetals or ofprofitable theoretical speculation.
This, then, is the background against which Biringuccio must be appraised.
First and foremost he stands out as the practical man, concerned with carrying
out operations on metals for profit and for use. He reaHzes the advantages of
large-scale operation and advises the use ofpower-driven machinery in place
ofhand labor whenever possible. The avadabihty ofadequate water power is
the first thing to consider in estabhshing a smelter. Fuel and transportation
are the next requisites. Biringuccio’s work reflects an estabhshed capitahstic
economy. In an amusingly naive justification of his profession on moraHstic
grounds, he recommends mining as a safer way than soldiering to acquire
wealth and as a pleasanter one than that of the merchant with his uncom¬
fortable voyages to unfriendly foreign shores—in mining the danger is only
to one’s hired assistants. He recommends short shifts in mining (six or eight
hours) but does so only because new and rested men enable the proprietor
sooner to achieve profit.
Biringuccio has httle respect for the authorities that enslaved hterature for
so long. Though he was famihar with the classics and is not averse to quoting
Aristotle and Phny on the nature and origin of ores, references to hterature
are meager and are sometimes given with a hint of skepticism. Albertus
Magnus in particular is the target for derisive comment combined with mock
respect for his authority. Biringuccio’s source of information is almost
entirely his own observation and experience in the shops where metals were
smelted, worked, and cast. What alchemist could say with Biringuccio, “I
have no knowledge other than that gained through my own eyes” (p. 70) ?
He obviously enjoys the application ofskiU and knowledge to the working of
metals and finds intellectual satisfaction more in accomphshing a desired
result than in contemplating the causes of things. The modern metallurgist
wiU recognize a kindred spirit when, after comparing the foundryman to a
stevedore and a fool and describing his burned and dusty clothes and muddy
* A.J. Hopkins, Alchemy, child of Greek philosophy (New York, 1934).
INTRODUCTION XV
face, Biringuccio says that bronze founding is a profitable and a skillful art,
and in large part delightful.
Few sixteenth-century works are so utterly devoid ofsuperstition. Birin¬
guccio recognizes that ill luck is nothing but ignorance or carelessness and
says that the founder can assure Fortune’s favoring him by careful attention to
details. He laughs at those who use the divining rod and scorns the pseudo¬
magic ofthe alchemists. His evaluation of alchemy is astonishingly modem.
Though he ridicules their general approach, he concedes that practical al¬
chemists have produced a number of useful things and beheves that they
delude themselves more than they do others. He shares the perplexity of
modem man when he sees how scientific knowledge can be used for good or
ill, and wonders if men make inventions in the desire to serve mankind, or
from some inner or outer necessity. He sarcastically refers to the good and
lofty men ofinteUigence who, not satisfied with cannon and shot, devise yet
more effective means to injure their fellow men.
Biringuccio’s approach is largely experimental; that is, he is concerned
with operations that had been found to work without much regard to why.
The state of chemical knowledge at the time permitted no other sound
approach. Though Biringuccio has a number ofworking hypotheses, he does
not follow the alchemists in their blind acceptance of theory which leads
them to discard experimental evidence ifit does not conform. It was men like
Biringuccio, the practical metalworkers, dyers, pottery makers, alum boilers,
and kindred artisans, who accumulated the basic facts for a chemical science
during the period in which learned men of church and university were en¬
gaged in lengthy but barren theological disputation. The artisans were the
true scientists ofthis period, and ifthey lacked the flash ofgenius to produce a
consistent theoretical framework, it must be remembered that even genius
could do nothing without a reservoir of established fact. Many chemical re¬
actions had been discovered and put to practical use long before their inter¬
relation and significance were appreciated. If development of the chemistry
ofmetals in this period was slow, this was a result ofthe small numberofmen
interested in such things, the lack of encouragement that they received, and
the difficulties of communication with each other, increased by a certain re¬
luctance to share knowledge ofpossible advantage to a competitor.
Printing wasjust a hundred years old when Biringuccio’s work came from
the presses. Ofthe thirty thousand works printed in the fifteenth century, not
one was on metallurgy and very few dealt with science of any kind. Most,
indeed, were the works of men dead some centuries. Biringuccio states that
XVI PIROTECHNIA
one ofhis objects in writing is to record information for the specific purpose
of arousing intelligent minds to action, and on the basis ofnew information
to arrive at certain conclusions that they could not otherwise approach. Many
followed Biringuccio’s example, and as a result ofthis growing literature of
technological practice and experimental fact, science eventually became the
concern ofthe educated man.
Biringuccio records those processes that he has seen working and the mate¬
rials that have served liim. He reahzes that in other localities other materials
may be more economical and hence advises experiment with whatever related
substances are readily available. He advises trying out many things to see
which ones work. “It is necessary to fmd the true method by doing it again
and again, always varying the procedure and then stopping at the best.” In
most cases Biringuccio gives quantitative information and records appro¬
priate weights and dimensions. He says that whatever is promised by the
assay should be obtained in large-scale operation. Quantitative chemistry was
well established and the law of fixed reacting proportions understood and
utihzed, if not expressed. The balance for weighing assays and furnace
charges and the pen for computing them were as important to Biringuccio as
the furnaces themselves. Weigh everything, he admonishes—and trust no
one! In designing cannon and their carriages, he advises careful attention to
dimensions and design in order to avoid having parts either too heavy for
transport or too light for safety. To the bell founder he gives complete infor¬
mation on design and a linear scale ofbell dimensions for any desired weight.
Although Biringuccio can be credited with the first description in full
working detail ofmany ofthe arts and processes in his field, he lays no claim
to being actually the originator of any of them. Of course, like any artisan
worthy of his salt he must have made many minor adjustments and adapta¬
tions to local circumstances, but the broad principles seem to be those slowly
accumulated throughout the previous years. Biringuccio’s work is valuable
primarily because it records the technical details ofappHed chemistry as prac¬
ticed in his day, but inseparable from his account of an early stage in the
growth of an experimental science is the picture ofthe beginnings of capital¬
istic industrial economy as it related to a most vital type ofproduction. Here
we have science working hand in hand with industrial organization in begin¬
ning to produce a new society. His work should be as valuable to the his¬
torian of economics as to the historian ofscience and technology.
It is hard to judge the influence ofBiringuccio’s work on the development
of science. Some descriptions attributed to others are in reahty copies of
INTRODUCTION xvii
Biringuccio. Georgius Agricola in his famed De re metallica (1556) says of
him; “Recendy Varmoccio Biringuccio of Sienna, a wise man experienced in
many matters, wrote in vernacular Itahan on the subject of the melting,
separating and alloying of metals. He touched briefly on the methods of
smelting certain ores, and explained more fully the methods of making
certainjuices; by reading his directions, I have refreshed my memory ofthose
things which I saw in Italy; as for many matters on which I write he did not
touch upon them at all, or touched but lightly.”* Agricola’s “refreshing of
his memory” consisted of copying in extenso, without further acknowledg¬
ment, the earlier author’s accounts of mercury and sulphur distillation, glass
and steel making, and the recovery by crystallization ofsaltpeter, alum, salt,
and vitriol together with other less important sections. Agricola usually
added a superior illustration and often provided valuable additional details.
Biringuccio was certainly popular among men ofhis own kind, as attested
by the fact that no fewer than nine editions ofthe Pirotcchnia appeared over a
period of 138 years. Men hke Robert Hooke used it for practical information,
for in 1675 when Hooke heard of the finest steel’s being made by casting
cemented steel and forging the ingots—this 65 years before Huntsman—he
made a notef to look up more of this in “Vannucliio Beringochio.” Never¬
theless, references to Biringuccio in scientific hterature are few. Agricola’s
works were soon absorbed in the snowball accretion ofliterature references
and were quoted by almost everyone writing on metals, at first as a current
authority and later as an important milestone in the historical development of
metallurgy, mineralogy, chemistry, and engineering. On the other hand,
Biringuccio was rarely mentioned in contemporary literature and to this day
is frequently ignored by scientific and technological historians, particularly
those writing in English. It seems hkely that the greater popularity of Agric¬
ola was a result ofhis more scholarly approach and the fact that he wrote in
Latin, the language of the educated throughout Europe. The German and
Itahan translations made him available to the nations ofgreatest metallurgical
activity at the time. Biringuccio’s best descriptions are ofthe more practical
aspects ofmetalwork, and these were, for several generations, oflittle interest
to those who wrote books. Perhaps, too, the beautiful format that the house
of Froben gave to Agricola’s works appealed to those who were more con¬
cerned with the physical form of books than with the knowledge to which
they were the key. While Agricola was, and is, proudly owned and dis-
* Hoover translation, p. xxvii.
f The Diary ofRobert Hooke, entry for November 12, 1675.
PIROTECHNIA xviii
played, the smaller and inferior format ofBiringuccio’s work and its mferior
literary style caused it to be placed on the topmost shelves—when, indeed, it
ever got away from the company of the moulders’ tools and assay furnaces
that were its fit companions.
In the hterature of metals, Biringuccio’s Pirotechnia was followed by
Agricola’s De natura fossilium (1546), De re metallica (1556), and lesser works.
Perez de Vargas’ De re metalica (1569) was Httle more than a Spanish transla¬
tion ofparts ofBiringuccio and Agricola. Somewhat later appeared Ercker’s
Beschreibung allerfiirnemisten mineralischen Ertzt und Bergswercksarten (1574),
a book of great importance in the history of quantitative chemistry and of
interest for its forty-odd woodcut illustrations, among the most beautiful
that have ever graced a technical work.
Although the seventeenth century was a period ofgreat activity in physics
and chemistry, and although metallurgical production was increasing
rapidly at the time, the methods used were not much changed, and the
demand for books on metals was satisfactorily met by reprints ofthe sixteenth￾century authors, Biringuccio, Agricola and Ercker. Only one important
original work appeared in the seventeenth century, El arte de los metales by
Alvaro Alonzo Barba, which was pubhshed in Madrid in 1640. It was
translated into German, French and partly into English, appearing in at least
twenty-four editions.
Metallurgical information incidental to the authors’ main purposes is to be
found in many works. Cellini,* * * § for example, in writing for goldsmiths and
sculptors tells a lot about working, alloying and casting metals; Moxon’j' in
instructing the printer in his craft tells how to reduce antimony sulphide to
the metal and how to make and cast type metal; BoizardJ in compiling legal
information and regulations for the mintmaster appends fine instructions on
the chemical, metallurgical and mechanical aspects of making coins; and
Saint Remy,^ chiefly dealing with the mihtary aspects of the use of artillery,
adds chapters on copper alloys and on the whole detailed technique of the
gun founder. Books on chemistry and physics, particularly those by men
like Glauber, Boyle, and Hooke who were conscious ofthe interdependence
of science and industry, frequently contained the germs that later provided
* Benvenuto Cellini, Trattati dell'orejiceria e della scultura (Florence, 1568).
[Joseph Moxon,Mechanick exercises, or the doctrine of handy-works applied to the art of
printing (London, 1683).
tJean Boizard, Traite des monoyes . . . (Paris, 1696).
§ Saint Remy, Memoires d’artillerie . . . (Paris, 1697).
INTRODUCTION XIX
the basis for metallurgical practice. On the whole, however, the metallurgical
methods that had been developed by trial and error prior to the seventeenth
century were far ahead of chemical theory, and it was not until the eight¬
eenth century that advances in the fundamental sciences had affected metal¬
lurgical practice to an extent that required the writing of entirely new books.
While Biringuccio was perhaps unduly hopeful in using the expected
longevity of his book as a yardstick for the enduring quahties of one of his
fires, that of Love, there is no doubt that he has achieved a measure ofim￾mortahty. The Pirotechnia was the first compilation ofpractical metallurgical
knowledge to be printed and hence to achieve wide distribution. Placed thus
at the apex ofa widening stream—in 1942 a veritable flood—ofmetallurgical
pubhcations, its influence must have been felt indirectly in all subsequent
works, long after the last edition (printed almost a century and a half after
the manuscript was written) had been discarded by teclmologists as being
out ofdate.
C. S. S.
The Editions ofthe Pirotechnia.*
Biringuccio’s work first appeared in 1540, the year following the death ofits
author. Printed in Venice, the first edition bears the colophon “Stampata in
Venetia per Venturino Roffinello. Ad instantia di Curtio Nauo. & FrateUi.
Del M.CCCCC.XL.” The dedication by Navo is to one Bernardino di
Moncelesi da Salo and personal reference to Bernardino is made at the begin¬
ning of the preface and occasionally throughout the text. The same Curtio
Navo, or di Navo, produced both the second edition in 1550 (printed by
Giovan Padoano of Venice and dedicated to one Signor Guidotto Napio,
“Bohemian”), and the third, which is dated 1558 on the title page and dedi¬
cation, though the colophon reads “IN VINEGIA per Comin da Trino di
Monferrato. M D LIX.” This third edition is dedicated by Navo to Mon¬
signor M. Mario Caboga, Archdeacon ofRagusa, and contains the interesting
statement that the earher editions had likewise been embeUished and amended
by Caboga, their various patrons being hypothetical. Although they bear the
names of different printers, the three Navo editions are very similar to
each other in format and pagination; all consist of 22 quarto signatures,
viii +168 leaves. The first edition is typographically inferior, for the type
was worn, poorly ahgned, and arranged in a sohd mass, unreheved by para-
* See Appendix C for a bibliographical description of all editions.
XX PIROTECHNIA
graphing, which is indicated—often erroneously—only by a capitahzed
word. Newer type of the same design and the same woodcut initials were
used for the 1550 edition. A similar but thinner type and different initials were
used for the 1558/9 edition. The illustrations in all three Navo editions are
from the same blocks, though in the second edition a few of them are in¬
correctly placed. Most copies that one sees today are bound in plain untooled
vellum, sometimes flexible and sometimes on boards.
Another edition appeared in the same year and town that Navo published
his last edition. The tide page reads “In Venetia, Appresso P. Gironimo
Gigho, e compagni. M D LIX.” Unlike the Navo editions, this is octavo and
printed in italic. It contains many of the obscurities of the 1550 edition, on
which it was obviously based. The illustrations had been recut by an inferior
craftsman and frequently fail to show the proper detail. Was it perhaps these
that Cellini had in mind, when, in talking of a reverberatory furnace of
exactly the type described by Biringuccio, he says, “I do not intend making a
drawing ofit, because I have seen so many architectural drawings altered and
spoiled, so I shall content myselfwith words only to convey what I mean”?
Over a hundred years were to elapse before the appearance of another
Itahan edition. In 1678 the fifth edition was printed in Bologna by Gioseffo
Longhi. This was dedicated by the publisher, Natale Doriguzzi, to the Mar￾chese Giuseppe Montecuculi, brother of the more famous Raymond. This
edition follows the 1559 edition in content, size, and general format. Once
more the illustrations were recut, with deficient skill and often unintelhgible
results. No further reprints appeared until modern times.
Aldo Mieli published in 1914 at Bari the first volume ofwhat was to have
been a modem definitive edition. Unfortunately, this ended with Chapter 6
ofBook II and apparently no more is to be pubhshed. Mieh gives an account
ofBiringuccio’s hfe and a valuable analysis of his background and contribu¬
tion.
There are numerous minor differences in spelling and grammar between
the different editions but otherwise the text is much the same. In each subse¬
quent edition some attempt was made to clarify the language but this seldom
resulted in clarifying the technical meaning. The third edition (1558/g) is the
most free from linguistic obscurities. The 1540 edition was chosen as a basis of
the present translation as it most likely represents Biringuccio’s original
words.
The only contemporary translation purporting to be complete is in
French, and was made by “feu maistre” Jaques Vincent, Although the royal
INTRODUCTION XXI
privilege is dated September 1552, the book was not pubHshed until 1556. It
was printed in Paris by Claude Fremy and is dedicated to Jehan de la Marche.
The text is excellently printed and the cuts are well copied. The translation
was reprinted under the same auspices in 1572 but by the use ofsmaller type
the text was compressed into 168 instead of230 quarto leaves. It was printed
again in 1627 by Jacques Cailloue ofRouen in an edition that is practically a
line-for-line copy ofthe one of 1556.
Vincent’s translation is not a good one, for it is full of omission, condensa¬
tion, and misinterpretation. Most English writers who have used the Piro￾technia in the past have referred to the French versions, thereby obtaining
a false picture ofBiringuccio’s ideas.
A modem French translation of some of the chapters relating to gun
founding was made by one Rieffel, “Professeur aux ecoles d’artillerie,”
and published in Paris in 1856 under the title Traite de la fabrication des
bouches a feu de bronze au XVF siecle en Italie. . . . This includes chapter 3
ofBook V, chapters i, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8a, 10, and ii ofBook VI, and chap¬
ters I, 5, 6, and 8 ofBook VII.
It would seem that the demand for a work of this kind would have been
greater in Germany than elsewhere, yet no German translation appeared
until 1925. In that year a complete translation, with notes, by OttoJohannsen
was published. This was constantly referred to in preparing the present trans¬
lation, though we not infrequently differ in our interpretations.
Gobet* states that there was also a Latin translation of Biringuccio, pub¬
lished in Cologne in 1658. Beckmann, in his Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Erfin￾dungen,^ refers to a French one published in Frankfort in 1627. Neither of
these editions can today be found in the catalogues ofthe principal libraries.
No complete translation into any other language is known. Bernado
Perez de Vargas, in his De re metalica published in Madrid in 1569 (Colophon
1568), gives Spanish translations of generous sections of both Agricola and
Biringuccio, mainly without acknowledgment. He depends largely on
Agricola for smelting and assaying, but quotes Biringuccio for details on
alloys and metalworking generally.
Richard Eden, in the preface ofthe work to be later mentioned, says that
* N. Gobet, Les Anciens mineralogistes de France (Paris, 1779), Vol. i, pages 324-326.
fJ. Beckmann, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Erfindimgen (Leipzig 1780-1792). Beckmann
devotes an entire chapter to Biringuccio, whose book lie considered to be of great im¬
portance. This chapter was omitted by William Johnston in making the English transla¬
tion.
xxu PIROTECHNIA
he intended to translate the whole Pirotechnia into Enghsh, and had actually
finished the first twenty-two chapters (i.e., to the end ofBook II) in 1552, but
he had the still-common experience of lending his manuscript to one from
whom he could never retrieve it. The chapters on gold and silver, now per¬
haps of as httle interest as any in the book, were important enough in those
gold-hungry times to be translated once again for inclusion in the com¬
pendium of geographical knowledge that Eden was about to pubhsh. This
was the time when the interest ofaU Europe was turning to the New World,
and records of voyages of discovery were being read avidly by merchants,
princes, and philosophers as well as by sailors. Richard Eden had previously
published an Enghsh translation of Sebastian Munster’s Cosmography, and in
1555 brought out a collection entitled The Decades ofthe newe worlde or west
India, containing the nauigations and conquestes ofthe Spanyardes. ... In addition
to the chiefwork, Pietro Martires’ Decades, this includes also letters by Ame¬
rigo Vespucci and Sebastian Cabot and a number of other descriptions of
voyages and natural phenomena ofuse to the traveler in distant lands. Having
described the Indies, Moscow, and Cathay, having proved that the world Was
round, and having given a method for finding the longitude ofstrange places,
what is more natural than that Eden should recognize the traveler’s real
reason for hisjourney, and include a description ofthe modes of occurrence
ofgold and silver ores and the manner offinding them? In his own words, “It
seemeth to me a thinge undecent to reade so much ofgolde and sylver and to
knowe so lytde or nothinge ofthe natural! generation thereof.” For the en¬
lightenment of the reader he could have used Agricola’s De naturafossilium,
pubhshed in 1546, but instead he chose our author’s first three chapters, trans¬
lating them faithfully with the omission only of the diatribe against al¬
chemists. Eden evidently possessed some practical knowledge, for he occa¬
sionally expands a word into a phrase to give greater clarity. He undoubtedly
learned ofthe Pirotechnia from “the ryght worshypful and ofsingular leam￾ynge in all the sciences, Syr Thomas Smyth, in my time the floure of the
Universitie ofCambridge and sometyme my tutor.” Sir Thomas was travel¬
ing abroad during the years 1539-41 and probably brought back the newly
pubhshed Pirotechnia to show to his eager pupil.
Eden’s translation was reprinted in 1885 in The first three English books on
America by Richard Arber. This work, which was again printed in 1895,
includes most ofEden’s other translations and a useful biography ofhim.
One ofthe earhest miHtary books in Enghsh is the celebrated Certain waies
for the ordering ofsouldiers in battelray by PeterWhitehom, pubhshed in London
INTRODUCTION XXUl
in 1560. Whitehom was an accomplished Itahan scholar and translated also
MachiavelH’s Arte della guerra. It has not been recognized heretofore that
the chapters in the Wales describing mines, bombs, mihtary fireworks,
saltpeter, and gunpowder are practically nothing more than translations
of Biringuccio’s chapters on these topics, and are even adorned with
copies of Biringuccio’s iUustrations though no mention is made of their
source. Perhaps he contributed original matter to the section on mihtary
maneuvers, but Whitehom deserves none of the credit he often gets for
describing the manufacture and properties ofsaltpeter and gunpowder, or the
various effects achieved with them.
Short passages from Biringuccio have been translated into Enghsh by a
number of writers. John Percy in his Metallurgy of iron and steel (London,
1864) published a translation ofthe chapter on steel (Book I, Chap. 7) made
at his request by no less a person than Sir Anthony Panizzi, principal hbrarian
ofthe British Museum. Percy’s star pupil and assistant, A. Dick, translated the
chapter on amalgamation for the former’s Metallurgy of silver and gold
(London, 1880). H. C. and L. Hoover in the admirable notes to their transla¬
tion of Agricola’s De re metallica quote from Percy’s works and also translate
several other short passages, apparently following the French editions more
closely than the Itahan. E. A. Hodgkin in his Rariora (London, 1903) trans¬
lates certain sections on pyrotechnics, obviously from the French translation
with its many defects.
The combination in one individual of a knowledge of both Italian and
metallurgy together with an interest in history is rare in the English-speaking
world, and the task of translating the Pirotechnia into Enghsh, begun by
Richard Eden in 1552, has remained uncompleted. The present work is the
result of the collaboration of two individuals whose chief fields of activity
have been, respectively, Itahan literature and metahurgy.
C. S. S.
Remarks on the Translation.
The present translation has been made from the first edition ofthe Pirotechnia,
pubhshed in 1540. This appears to have been printed directly from a manu¬
script which must have been rapidly written, uncorrected for the most part
by the author, and difficult to decipher. The sentence structure is intricate and
sometimes ambiguous, while the meager and faulty punctuation is not only
confusing but such as to alter the meaning entirely in many passages. The
XXIV PIROTECHNIA
lack of almost all apostrophes and accents customary to Italian usage often
causes difficulties—does loro mean “theirs” or “gold” (/’oro), does e stand for
“is” (e) or “and”? The context is not always a sure guide to clarity. Mis¬
spellings, distorted and disparate spellings, as well as archaic and vernacular
forms abound. At the same time, however, Biringuccio did not have to coin
phrases in an obsolete tongue, and the obscurities arising from this source in
Agricola’s Latin, for example, are absent. The names of substances and ap¬
paratus are generally unmistakable.
Had Biringuccio Hved to revise the manuscript or to advise the printer,
some ofthe more obvious errors, especially those resulting from miscompre¬
hension ofthe meaning, would undoubtedly have been eliminated and some
ofthe obscurities of expression removed. There would have remained, how¬
ever, the redundant verbosity that pervades the work, as well as the persistent
Tuscanisms, or, more properly, the Sienese vernacular usages. Biringuccio
can scarcely be credited with hterary ability. Though clothed with some of
the conventional rhetorical flourishes ofthe time, his work lacks the style and
distinction of Cellini’s writing and much ofits vividness. It does, however,
possess the immediacy of the spoken word. Despite its formal structure of
chapters and books, the whole work has the air of a long extemporaneous
discourse, expressed with the enthusiasm of a man speaking informally to
friends about his chosen work. Biringuccio’s blunt, direct speech is that ofthe
practical man whose life has been passed in the active exercise ofhis craft; he
is not interested in grammatical accuracies or in hterary niceties. Eager, alert,
possessed of an unquenchable curiosity and sharp powers of observation, he
has traveled, worked, and experimented unceasingly, and now in his old age
is intent on sharing the fruits of his experience with his friends and fellow
workers.
Yet how frequently and ardently the translator finds himself wishing that
Biringuccio had been more concerned, either consciously or instinctively,
with the tools of his expression! The grammatical discrepancies of his work
at times hang like clouds between the reader and the sun of Biringuccio’s
thought. Relative pronouns are flung about with prodigal and indiscriminate
hand; subject pronouns are shifted, often within the same paragraph or even
sentence, from “you” to “he,” from “I” to “we,” and from “it” to “one” or
“they” with complete abandon. So, too, are tenses changed without warning
from present to past or future and back again. Hence, modifications of per¬
son, number, and tense have necessarily been introduced in the translation to
ensure a logical unity oftime sequence and thought progression, in so far as
INTRODUCTION XXV
this seemed feasible without distorting the fundamental concept of the
author. The repetition ofthe subject for a pronoun has often been necessary.
Changes other than these grammatical ones, and doubtful interpretations are
carefully noted by brackets [] or by footnotes. A few footnotes have also been
added to provide historical perspective or to indicate the significance of
certain ofBiringuccio’s operations.
The Dizionario della lingua Italiana of Niccolo Tommaseo and Bernardo
Bellini has been the final authority for word meanings, though some ofthe
obscure words used by Biringuccio are left undefmed therein and merely
illustrated by a quotation from Biringuccio himself
The desire to keep the translation as close to the Italian text as possible has
resulted in reflecting some of the faults of the original which a less literal
rendition would have dissembled. Nevertheless, it has been felt that to sacri¬
fice literary style was preferable to sacrificing exactness and the faithful
reproduction of the author’s ideas. What one wishes to know in reading a
work ofsuch historical importance is precisely what the author said, not what
a translator of a later century thinks he ought to have said. Therefore, great
care has been exercised to avoid adding to the text or subtracting anything.
In the inevitable arguments between metallurgist and linguist, the latter
has always had the final word, though preference has been given to a reading
technically correct wherever such an interpretation is clearly justified.
Experience with other translations of a similar kind—even the best—indi¬
cates that errors and misinterpretations must be present in this. These will be
most numerous in the sections other than those dealing with metallurgy,
where the translators may have faded to recognize the true significance of a
certain phrase or operation. The serious scholar must, as always, base his con¬
clusions only on his own interpretation ofthe original text.
M. T. G.
XXVl PIROTECHNIA
Acknowledgments
The translators wish to record their appreciation ofthe help given by many
individuals with whom they have discussed various details of the work.
They are particularly indebted to Mrs. Anne Noble McKeachie, who ini¬
tiated their collaboration; to Miss Cora Adamson, who spent many hours
in making an accurate copy of a much-mutilated first draft of the trans¬
lation; and to the Yale University Library which gave access to its excellent
collection of books on all aspects of the history of the sciences. The reader
will share with the translators their obvious indebtedness to Mr. Carl P.
Rollins, Mr. James W. Boyden, and the staff ofthe Printing-Office of the
Yale University Press.
The pubheation of this translation by the American Institute of Mining
and Metallurgical Engineers has been made possible by a grant from the Seeley
W. Mudd Memorial Fund, administered by a committee composed of
Harvey S. Mudd, H. DeWitt Smith, and George Otis Smith. The transla¬
tors are gratified that their work has been judged to fall within the scope
of this Fund, which was established for the advancement of the sciences
of mining and metallurgy by the encouragement of research and the dis¬
semination of knowledge, and especially for the furtherance of such activi¬
ties as might benefit the younger members of the profession. While Birin￾guccio’s book would scarcely serve as a dependable text for the young
mining student or metallurgist, it can give him a sense of his membership
in a long-standing and honorable profession and enable him better to see his
own work in true perspective.
It is hoped that this English edition ofa sixteenth-century Itahan work will
be read by the practicing metallurgist as well as by those who have already
found pleasure in exploring the past of their profession. A man always feels
more at home in a foreign country with men of his own craft than in his
birthplace with those of different interests: As in space, so in time, and the
modem metallurgist who may be unmoved by the hterary and artistic
Renaissance will quickly appreciate die spirit of that exciting period as he
talks shop with Biringuccio on a visit to mine, smelter, forge, and foundry;
as he sees in different forms the very furnaces and machines whose operation
and response he knows so well; and as he discusses with this engineer offour
centuries ago such topics as the best kinds of fuel or refractory for a given
operation, and the importance of adequate supphes of power and material.
FIRE
At the conclusion ofour survey ofthe ways in which human inteUigence
/-A calls art to its aid in counterfeiting nature, we cannot but marvel at the
JL ^ fact that fire is necessary for almost every operation. It takes the sands
of the earth and melts them, now into glass, now into silver, or minium or
one or other lead, or some substance useful to the painter or physician. By fire
minerals are disintegrated and copper produced: in fire is iron bom and by
fire is it subdued: by fire gold is purified: by fire stones are burned for the
binding together of the walls of houses. . . . Fire is the immeasurable, un¬
controllable element, concerning which it is hard to say whether it con¬
sumes more or produces more.
PLINY
LIBRI . X.PO VE AMPIAMEN
te fi tracca non folo di ogniforte fiC di/
ucrfica di MinierCj ma anchora cjuan
to fi ricerca mtornoa la prattica di
quelle cofe di quelche fi apparticnc
a I’arte dc la fufione ouer gitto de me
tallicome d^ogni altra.cofa fitnife a
queda* Compofti per iLS.Vanoc^
cio Biringucdo Scnnefe,
Con Priuilegio Apoftolico 8C dcla
Cefarea Maefta SC del Illuftrifs^Scna
toVeneto, m d
TITLE PAGE OF FIRST EDITION—I54O.
THE
PIROTECHNIA
OF
VANNOCCIO BIRINGUCCIO
TRANSLATED FROM THE ITALIAN
WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND NOTES
BY
CYRIL STANLEY SMITH
&
MARTHA TEACH GNUDI
THE ORIGINAL PUBLICATION WAS SPONSORED BY THE
SEELEY W. MUDD MEMORIAL FUND OF THE AMERICAN
INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGICAL ENGINEERS
1943
J* 1. C-?
.^'»< ~ A
W^'i'
<^uc-itecv4c^i qiirl ^-h^'-j^-r :
qo€lh..,,,CcrTi^a* w : - ‘ i-vIm# F .
JOUMO HQAaT.AHXflAllsk^il'^ ‘
Cots f;ta*i'fgto ApoiTouc^ oT <ie la ^
. Ccfat^.'^Miol^dCdcl i]fo|Vnit,6-Ci)a
i f&Vej>e«>. K M O it.
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TT711 P AO£ O' . f|,n VS^U. • < . / o. ;
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DE LA PIROTECHNIA
Ten books in which are fully treated not only every kind
and sort ofmineral but also all that is necessary for the prac¬
tice ofthose things belonging to the arts ofsmelting or cast¬
ing metals and all related subjects. Composed by Signor
Vamioccio Biringuccio of Siena.
With Apostohc privilege and with that of His Imperial
Majesty and ofthe Illustrious Venetian Senate.
MDXL
cuRTio NAVO, To the very magnificent Messer Bernardino di
Moncelesi ofSolo:
If the best things are due to those who know them best, to whom is this
work more appropriate than to Your Lordship? It was composed in your
name by Messer Vannoccio Biringuccio of Siena, an excellent man, and
given by him to me so that it is justly yours, and truly it is due to you,
since there is no one who could better know it and more rightly judge it
than you, either with Philosophy (in which you are most expert) or with
Mathematics or Architecture. Furthermore, I know that you will prize it
because it treats fully not only every kind and sort ofmineral but also all
that is necessary concerning the practice ofthose things that relate to the
arts ofsmelting or casting metals, as well as everything similar to this. You
will also prize it most highly ifyou consider the spirit in which I offer it to
you, and this must be considered no less if there are some things lacking
herein because ofsome slight earthly misfortune. And with this I offer my
services to you, and kiss your hands.
PER CVRTIO NAVO* ET FRA.
TLLtl, AL SEGNO DEL LION»
Here begins the OF COJ^'T^l^'TS ofthis volume, by which every
subject contained in this work can easily befound; proceeding in orderfrom book
to book, the chapters and pages are shown by number.
BOOK ONE
EVERY KIND OF MINERAL, IN GENERAL
Page*
[Preface] 13
Chapter i The ore of gold. 26
2 The ore ofsilver. 45
3 The ore of copper. 49
4 The ore oflead. 54
5 The ore oftin. 59
6 The ore ofiron. 61
7 The practice ofmaking steel. 67
8 The practice ofmaking brass. 70
BOOK TWO
[THE SEMIMINERALS]
[Preface] 77
Chapter i Quicksilver and its ore. 79
2 Sulphur and its ore. 86
3 Antimony and its ore. 91
4 Marcasite and its quahty. 92
5 Vitriol and its ore. 95
6 Rock alum and its ore. 98
7 Arsenic, orpiment, and realgar. 105
8 Common mineral salt and many other artificial salts. 107
9 Calamine, zaffre, and manganese. 112
10 The lodestone and some ofits effects. 114
11 Bole, ochre, [emery], and borax. 116
12 Azure and green azure. 117
13 Rock-crystal, gems, and other glasses. 119
14 Glass and other semiminerals. 126
* Page numbers relate to this translation. The page numbers of the 1540 edition are
interpolated in the text at the appropriate points, at the begirming of each page.
4 PIROTECHNIA
BOOK THREE
[ASSAYING AND PREPARING ORES FOR SMELTING]
Page
[Preface] 13 5
Chapter i The method ofassaying the ores of aU metals in general, and
in particular those containing silver and gold, 136
2 The method ofpreparing ores before smelting. 141
3 The common forms ofblast furnaces and other furnaces for
smelting ores. I45
4 The method followed in smelting ores. 1,53
5 The method by which lead, silver, and gold are separated
from copper when they are all in one mass resulting from
the smelting of ores or otherwise. 156
6 The method ofrefming silver on the cupel, the arrangement
of weights, and the method offinishing the assay of gold
and silver more skillfully. 159
7 The method of making cupehng hearths for refining silver
in quantity. i6i
8 The method of refining matte and converting it into fme
copper. 170
9 The method of smelting litharge and reducing it to pure
lead. 172
10The properties of charcoal and the different kinds ofit. 173
BOOK FOUR
[THE SEPARATION OF GOLD FROM SILVER]
[Preface] 181
Chapter i The method of making the common acid for parting gold
from silver. 183
2 The method ofassaying silver containing a quantity ofgold. 188
3 The proper method and procedure in parting gold perfectly
from silver in quantity, by means of acid. 190
4 The method ofretrieving silver and good acid from the pre¬
cipitates from acids. 194
5 Precautions that must be observed in parting gold from
silver with acids. 196
6 The method of parting gold from silver by means of sul¬
phur or antimony, 201
7 The method of cementing gold and bringing it to its ulti¬
mate fineness. 202
TABLE OF CONTENTS 5
BOOK FIVE
[THE ALLOYS THAT ARE FORMED BETWEEN METALS]
Page
[Preface] 207
Chapter i The alloy of gold. 208
2 The alloy ofsilver with copper. 209
3 The alloy of copper. 210
4 The alloys oflead and oftin; their purity and fmeness. 211
BOOK SIX
[THE ART OF CASTING IN GENERAL AND PARTICULAR]
[Preface] 212
Chapter i The quahty of the clay for making moulds for bronze
founding. 218
2 The arrangement and methods of making the moulds for
bronze founding, in general. 220
3 The differences in guns and their sizes. 222
4 The arrangements and various ways that are used for mak¬
ing moulds for statues to be cast in bronze. 228
5 The arrangements and methods for making gun moulds. 234
6 How the cores are made for gun moulds. 240
7 Methods of making the third part of the mould, called the
breech. 243
8 The method ofmaking the disc for holding the core. 245
8a The method ofsupporting the core in the mould at the foot
ofthe gun. 246
9 Gates and vents for moulds, in general. 248
10 The baking ofmoulds for casting in bronze, in general. 249
11 Necessary advice and precautions in making guns. 255
12 Methods of making the moulds for bells of all sizes, and
their dimensions. 260
13 The rule for proportioning the weight of the clapper to the
size [ofthe bell]. 272
14 The ways of hanging bells. 273
15 The method ofwelding [cracked] bells. 275
BOOK SEVEN
[METHODS OF MELTING METALS]
[Preface] 2,79
Chapter i The method of making reverberatory furnaces for melting
metals by the flames ofwood. 281
6 PIROTECHNIA
Page
2 The method ofmelting metals in the hearth. 288
3 The method ofmelting in ladles with charcoal and bellows. 290
3 a The method ofmelting metals in crucibles. 291
4 The method ofmelting in a wind furnace. 293
5 The melting ofbronzes and other metals, in general. 294
6 The bronzes and alloyed metals for casting, in general. 299
7 The methods of arranging various devices for moving the
bellows for urging melting fires. 300
8 Finishing guns, and the arrangement ofgun carriages. 307
9 Methods of casting iron for making balls for shooting with
guns. 319
BOOK EIGHT
[THE SMALL ART OF CASTING]
[Preface] 323
Chapter i Various methods ofmaking powders for casting, which will
receive and withstand bronze well. 324
2 The method ofpreparing the salt for making the magistery
for moulding powders. 325
3 The methods ofmoulding in frames and boxes in the small
art. 326
4 The manner of making the powders for casting in green
sand, and the method ofmoulding. 327
5 The various methods ofmoulding rehefs. 329
6 Note on some materials that have the property of making
metals melt easily and run into every comer ofthe mould. 332
BOOK NINE
[THE PROCEDURE OF VARIOUS WORKS OF FIRE]
[Preface] 335
Chapter i The art of alchemy in general. 336
2 The art ofdistilling oils and waters, and on sublimations. 338
3 Necessary discourse and advice on working a mint. 358
4 The art ofthe goldsmith. 363
5 The art ofthe coppersmith. 368
6 The art ofthe smith who works in iron. 369
7 The art ofthe pewterer. 374
8 The manner of drawing out gold, silver, copper, and brass
by beating, and making wire. 377
9 [The method ofpreparing gold for spinning.] 381
TABLE OF CONTENTS 7
Page
10 The method of removing gold from silver and any other
gilded object. 383
11 The method of extracting every particle of gold and silver
from slags of ores. 3 84
12 The procedure in making mirrors cast in beU metal. 385
13 The method ofmaking shells or crucibles for melting. 391
14 Discourse on the potter’s art. 392
15 Concerning lime and bricks. 395
BOOK TEN
[ON CERTAIN ARTIFICIAL COMBUSTIBLE
MATERIALS, AND THE PROCEDURES FOLLOWED IN
MAKING FIREWORKS TO BE USED IN WARFARE
AND FOR FESTIVALS]
[Preface] 403
Chapter i Saltpeter and the procedure ofmaking it. 404
2 The powder that is used in firing guns. 409
3 The methods that are used in loading guns and shooting
them accurately. 416
4 Subterranean mines. 422
5 The method ofmaking fire tubes. 425
6 The manner ofmaking metal balls [that burst]. 428
7 The methods ofmaking tongues offire. 43 3
8 The methods of preparing fire pots. 434
9 The method of making various compositions of artificial
fires. 43 <5
10 Methods of constructing girandoles. 440
[The Last
Chapter Concerning the fire that consumes without leaving ashes,
that is more powerful than any other fire, and whose
smith is the great son ofVenus.] 444
[Appendix A Figures from other sources.] 447
[Appendix B Weights and measures.] 457
[Appendix C List of editions ofthe Pirotechnia.] 458
[Appendix D Bibliography.] 462
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSf
Page,
1540 Edition
Page,
this Edition
Title page of First Edition, Venice, 1540
Publisher’s Mark
Figure No.
1. Smithy and other buildings at the mine entrance.
2. Miners’ tools, ore barrows, and baskets.
3. Blast furnace for smelting refractory iron ores.
4. Furnace for making brass.
5. Chambers for the condensation of mercury vapor
distilled from the ore.
6. Distillation ofmercury ores in pots.
7. Earthenware pots for extracting mercury.
8. Recovery ofmercury with a distilling beU.
9. Tubulated vessels for the extraction of sulphur by
disthlation.
10. Apparatus for the distillation ofsulphur.
11. Furnace for melting, working, and anneahng glass.
12. Making cupels for the assay.
13. An assaying laboratory, showing balances, muffle,
furnace for cupeling, etc.
14. Various forms of blast furnaces.
15. Circular reverberatory furnace for smelting ores.
16. Hearth for the hquation of copper-lead cakes.
17. Forming the hearth of a large cupehng furnace.
18. A cupeling hearth with brick dome.
19. Cupehng hearth with iron hood.
20. Cupehng hearth covered with clay plates.
21. Cover ofwooden logs over a cupehng hearth.
22. Hearth for refining copper.
23. The construction of charcoal piles.
24. Charcoal-burning in pits.
25. Building a furnace for the distillation of aqua fortis.
26. Drying cucurbits after covering with lute.
27. Compounding lute and inspecting cucurbits for dis¬
tilling.
28. Preparing the sand bath for distillation.
29. The pattern from which gun moulds are made.
30. The core bar and finished cores for gun chambers of
various shapes.
31. Various kinds ofsupports for the cores in gun moulds.
\This list ofillustrations is not given in the original, nor do any ofthe woodcuts them¬
selves bear a number or title.
iv
*
2
*
18
24
17 64
2iy 76
24f 83
25 84
25 85
25^ 85
26v 88
27 89
44V 133
461/ 138
47 140
51 150
511/ 151
54V 158
57V 165
58 166
58 167
167
58f 168
60 171
62V 177
63 178
64 184
641^ 184
70 197
70 198
831; 235
86v 242
89 247 00
10 PIROTECHNIA
Page, Page,
ij40 Edition this Edition
32. The bell foundry, showing a reverberatory furnace,
the method of laying out a bell, and the lathe for
turning a bell core. 98 270
33. The beU scale. 981^ 271
34. Two methods ofringing bells. 99t^ 274
35. Four types ofbearings for hanging large beUs. 990 274
36. Additional ways ofhanging bells. 100 275
37. Furnace for welding cracked bells. lOOf 276
38. The layout of the hearth and firebox of a reverbera¬
tory furnace for melting bronze. 102 283
39. Plan of a reverberatory furnace with two fireboxes. I03f 286
40. Reverberatory furnaces with oval hearths. 1031^ 286
41. A reverberatory furnace with a round hearth. 104 287
42. General view of a reverberatory furnace for melting
bronze. 104 287
43. Melting in the basket and in the hearth, both arranged
for bottom tapping. 105 289
44. Melting in the ladle, with bellows. 105^ 290
45. Arrangement for melting in crucibles, with blast. 106 292
46. Wind furnaces for melting in crucibles by natural
draft. io6v 293
47. The operation ofbellows by cams on a shaft driven by
an overshot water wheel. no 301
48. Operation ofbellows with crank and crossbar. no 301
49. Operation ofbellows with crank and counterweighted
crossbar. nor 302
50. Bellows arranged for operation by hand. nor 302
51. Treadle-operated bellows. in 304
52. Bellows arranged for direct operation by a man’s
weight. in 304
53. Operation ofbellows with a rocking bar. nir 305
54. Operation of bellows by a rack and partly toothed
wheel. Inr 305
55. Machine for boring guns. n3r 309
56. Machine with two boring tools, one ofwhich is driven
by gears. 114 310
57. Boring bars with three different types ofcutting heads. i I4r 311
, 58. Wooden axle for a gun carriage. 115 314
59. Green-sand mould and core for casting a small bell. I20r 328
60. Metal distilling bells and their furnaces. 126 342
61. Cucurbits, alembics, and receivers arranged in the fur¬
nace for distillation. 126 343
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS II
Page, Page,
1540 Edition this Edition
62. Distillation with a cucurbit and alembic in a water
bath. I26t' 344
63. Large water bath for heating several cucurbits simul¬
taneously. 127 345
64. Multiple distillation by the heat ofputrefying manure,
aided by steam. 1271; 346
65. Distillation ofalcohol in a bell with a worm condenser
and with a rectifying column. 1281^ 348
66. Pehcans and other vessels for reflux distillation. i2gv 349
67. Retort and furnace for the distillation of ods. izgv 351
68. Earthenware pots for the extraction of oils from
wood, and the bell for collecting oil from burning
sulphur. 130 352
69. Apparatus for sublimation by ascent and descent. 13OV 354
70. Tower furnaces for distillation. Detail at back shows
the flue dampers. I3if 356
71. “Three types ofreverberatory distilling furnaces.” 132 357
72. Wire drawing with capstan, windlass, and drums. 140 379
73. Drawing heavy wire by means ofwater power. 1401' 380
74. Goldbeaters at work on a duplex plate of gold and
silver. 141 382
75. Amalgamation mills for treating sweepings, etc. 142 385
76. The pottery, showing two forms ofpotter’s wheel and
the furnace for firing the ware. 146 394
77. Brick and lime kilns. 149 400
78. Loading and aiming a gun. In the background are
shown a sight and a gunner’s level. 1571' 421
79. A subterranean mine, showing “the'foundation ofthe
mine disclosed” and “the place of greatest effect.” I58f 424
80. Large fire tubes reinforced with wire and bands, and a
lined wooden tube serving as a light gun. 160 427
81. A battery of guns discharging small fire tubes among
cavalry. 162 432
82. Lances and pikes with small fire tubes attached. 1620 433
83. Fire pots with slings, and incendiary arrows. 163 435
84. Girandoles. i66t' 443
APPENDIX A: Figuresfrom other sources illustrative ofBiringuccio's
descriptions.
I. Apparatus for the recovery of gold from amalgam (Ercker). 447
II. Chambers for the distillation and condensation of mercury
(Agricola). 448
12 PIROTECHNIA
Page,
this Edition
III. Furnace for melting, working, and annealing glass (Agricola). 448
IV. Blast furnaces (Agricola). 449
V. Furnace for the cementation of gold (Agricola). 451
VI. Diagrammatic section of a gun mould. 452
VII. Diagram illustrating Biringuccio’s method of designing a beU. 453
VIII.Curve showing the relation between the rim thickness and the
weight of bells. 454
IX. Curve showing relation between weights of bell and clapper. 455
X. Athanor and other furnaces for the distillation of nitric acid
(Ercker). 456
The First Book of the Pirotechnia of Messer Vannoccio Biringuccio, in
which are treated generally every kind of mineral and melting and
other things: To Messer Bernardino di Moncelesi of Salo.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST BOOK
Concerning the Location ofOres.
AVING promised you to write concerning the nature of
ores in particular, I must teU you some general facts, espe¬
cially those concerning the places, kinds, and manner of
their existence as well as the tools which are used. However,
you must know that according to good investigators these
ores are found in many parts of the world. They show
themselves almost like the veins of blood in the bodies of animals, or the
branches oftrees spread out in different directions. Indeed, careful investi¬
gators of minerals, wishing to show by analogy how ores are located in
mountains, have drawn a large tree with many branches, planted in the
middle ofthe base of a mountain. From its principal trunk extend various
branches, some thick, some slender, exactly like real trees in mature
forests. They think that these grow and enlarge continually and draw
themselves toward the sky, ever converting into their own nature the
most disposed adjacent materials so that finally the tips arrive at the sum¬
mit ofthe mountain and emerge with clear sign, sending forth, in place of
leaves and blossoms, blue or green fumosities,* marcasites with small
veins of heavy mineral, or other composition of tinctures. From these
things, when they are found, it is possible to make certain inference that
such a mountain contains ores, and as the signs are more or less, so are the
minerals plentiful and rich or poor. For this reason the prospectors for
these things take heart according to the manifestations that they fmd, and
with hope and certainty ofprofit they take all possible pains to mine with
skill and expense those things that the signs have indicated. Often there are
ores ofsuch a kind and quality that they raise a man in wealth to the skies.
For this reason men penetrate with eyes ofappraisal and judgment within
the mountains and see almost exactly the places where there is ore and the
*fumosita. This refers to the colored surface-staining ofrocks by weathering, the most
obvious sign of the presence of certain minerals. Biringuccio beheved it to be caused by
mineral vapors or fumes passing through the rocks.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
14
quantity of it. They direct the excavation toward these, for otherwise
they would go by chance, because in no other way can men understand
where there is ore in the mountains, however good theirjudgment may
be or however minutely they may have searched.
Furthermore, it is necessary to walk around, making certain from the
appearance of the signs (trying to find as many as possible) and always
keeping eyes and ears turned to wherever there is hope of finding some
information, especially toward shepherds or other ancient inhabitants of
the countryside. I tell you this because I am persuaded that goodJudgment
concerning the first aspect of the mountain is not sufficient, for its great
barrenness, its harshness, or the waters which rise there may not be strong
enough to give certain sign that it contains sufficient ore to warrant the
prospectors’ starting to excavate with much expense and great bodily
effort.
I say this also because I do not beheve that one man, however strong and
careful he may be, has enough strength to go about minutely examining a
single mountain that might contain ore, much less all the mountains
of one or more provinces. Some, because they know of this difficulty,
say that they make use of necromancy. Since I consider this a fabulous
thing and have no information of what it may be, I intend neither to
praise nor to damn it, and yet ifwhat they say they do were indeed true, it
would be a very useful thing. However, I wish these necromancers would
tell me why they do not use their art after they have found the ore and do
also for the middle and the end what they do for the beginning; that is,
use their art for excavating the ore and reducing it to smelted material and
to the purity of its separation. Without doubt it can be believed that if
they have the power to do one ofthe said things, they also have the power
to do the others, but such operations are so fearful and horrible that they
neither should nor could be practiced, nor would all men wish to do so.
Such a thing is not well known, and I have never heard that it is practiced.
The principal reason why it must be believed that such practices are
abandoned in this part ofthe work is that whenever the excavation of a
mine is begun, it is customary first to seek the grace of God, so that He
may intervene to aid every doubtful and difficult effort; and in place of
this one would be seeking the aid ofthe devils of hell. Whence, in order
to discover ores, I think it better to abandon the way ofbestial and fearless
men and to choose the way of using the signs that are exhibited to us
through the benignity of Nature, founded on truth and approved by all
PREFACE THE LOCATION OF ORES 15
experts because oftheir experience, which, as is evident, does not consist
ofwords or promises ofincomprehensible and vain things.
With this you will search the slopes of valleys, the crevices, broken
pieces of rock, ridges or highest peaks of the mountains, and hkewise the
beds and courses of rivers; and, looking into their sands or among the
ruins of ditches, where marcasites or little pieces of ore or various other
metalhc tinctures often appear, you will easily have indications from these
things that there surely is ore in those places. Exactly where they are to be
found may be determined by carefully observing the openings whence
they have broken off.
After these, one has a general sign that all those mountains and other
places contain ores where large quantities offresh water spring up, water
that is clear, though it has some mineral taste and changes its quality with
every season, becoming warm in the winter and very cold in the summer.
Even more must you beheve it when you see those rough and wild
mountains that are without soil or any growth of trees; or if indeed a
little soil with a few blades of grass should be found, it is seen to be without
its customary green color, all dry and weak. Most ores are in mountains of
the kind just described to you, although some are found in mountains
covered with soil and fruit-bearing trees and there is no sign to tell you of
the presence of ores unless you search their slopes carefully. Ofthese the
truest and most certain sign that can be given is when the ore shows itself
clearly to the sight on the surface ofthe ground, either high or low.
There are some who praise highly as a good sign certain residues that
waters make where they are still, and after having stood for several days,
frequently warmed by the rays of the sun, they show in some parts of
their residues various tinctures of metallic substances. There are others
who usually take this water and cause it to evaporate or dry up entirely
by boding it in a vessel ofearthenware, glass, or some other material, and
they test the gross earthy substance that remains at the bottom by tasting,
by the ordinary fire assay, or in some other way that pleases them. In this
way (although they do not have an exact proof) they approach some sort
ofknowledge ofthe thing.
Thus you can make sure that there is sufficient ore where you are look¬
ing for it and that it is good and in large quantity, and this must be done
in the best way with as much care as possible before beginning to exca¬
vate, so that the expense will not be thrown away. With great industrious
care one must search in places near the roots ofneighboring mountains or
i6 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
on the slopes ofthe mountain itself and likewise all the surface where the
rock is found naturally exposed, or in the watercourses, presupposing that
it is almost impossible, if such mountains contain ores, that they should
not send forth some vaporous exhalation. However, if they did not, it
might happen that it is because the ore is ofsuch good quality that it does
not by nature form vapors, because there is but a small quantity, or per¬
haps because the mountain is so very large and the ore is still very deep
down or so far inside that the fumes have not come through to give a
sign outside. Alternatively it may be because there is interposed between
the metal and the surface some rock of a thick and resistant nature, like
hmestone or black or white marble, which prevents it from coming to the
surface. For this reason there may be trees and grass growing (as I have
said) because the earth retains its powers and is able to nourish their roots
since it is not consumed or burned by heat and poisonous mineral vapors,
and rain waters cannot carry the earth away in its course as happens in
those places that are burnt. I have seen many ofthese mountains with great
chesmut groves on them, cultivated fields, and great woods of beech and
cerris trees. Thus, to sum up, the lack ofthe signs ofsterility and harslmess
does not necessarily mean that the mountains do not have ore, or that one
should not search there. Since the signs vary in appearance according to the
kind ofmineral, I shall tell you about them more in detail where the ores
themselves are treated. Here I have wished to speak of them only in
general, in order to give you a certain initial light on them. Likewise,
further enhghtening you, I say that in all ores that are found by means of
these signs or that in any way have come to hand, whether found in rock,
earth, or sand, you have to consider their weight in addition to the first
appearance ofmetallic mineral which they show. The greater the weight
is, the more they show perfection, good elemental mixture ofsubstances,
and greater quantity of ore.
Suppose that by signs or other method you have found the mountains
and by knowledge have also found the ore without being certain of its
particular type, in order to make sure what kind ofmetal the ore contains,
what its quantity, what its companions, and what its purity or impurity, it
is necessary before any expenditure is made to assay it one or more times
in the way that I shall teach you in its particular place in the Third Book.
When it is known that there is an ore and what quantity ofwhat metal it
contains, and it is found by calculation that you will recover enough value
in it to justify the expense, I exhort you to begin courageously and to
PREFACE THE LOCATION OF ORES 17
continue the undertaking with every care, and to start mining. In any ore
material you may promise yourselfthe same proportion by weight as was
in that which you took from the surface for assaying in order to fmd its
substance, for you will certainly find it better the farther you go into the
mountain.
Thus drawn on by the assurance ofthe assay and by the quantity ofthe
thing that is shown to you by signs and by every other rational reason
which would surely cause you to wish to start to mine, you must arrange
to do it with the greatest celerity, so that you may soon enjoy the fruits
thereof and so that ifnothing is found in that place you may try your luck
elsewhere.
To do this you must first choose the site where you are to make the
beginning of your mine, taking care that this is as convenient as possible
for the men who are to work there and above all that it is easy to make an
entrance into the mountain, in order to be able to arrive under the signs
that you have observed with the greatest possible saving of expenditure
and in a short time. You must make the traverse wisely, working in a
straight line in order to strike the largest mass ofthe ore, breaking through
every composition ofstone strata that you encounter in the course ofyour
excavation, but always keeping as a guide the signs that were shown
outside.
In addition to the choice of a place destined for the entrance and begin¬
ning ofthe mine, you must also choose another place, opposite, above, or
at the side of this, that is near by and convenient for the construction of
one, two, or more cabins for the convenience and use of your workmen.
One is for their sleeping quarters, where your assistant can live in order
that he may be able to observe and encourage the men in their work at all
hours, and also for storing and dispensing food and for other needs. An¬
other should be a building for the working of iron to mend broken
tools and to make new ones to replace those that are lacking as the old
ones are worn out or ruined by breaking.
This done, when you have a goodly provision offoodstuffs, a goodly
number of miners experienced in the work you wish to do, and all the
tools necessary for breaking and excavating rocks and carrying away
earth, and when you have had the mountains and aU your cabins and the
mine baptized by a priest in the name of God and a fortunate outcome
(dedicating it as is customary to the Holy Trinity or to Our Lady or in the
name ofsome other saint whom you hold in reverence, invoking his pro-
BOOK I i8 PIROTECHNIA
tection), then carefully make a beginning of the mining, with the deter¬
mination to continue and not to abandon the enterprise as long as the
possibility of discovery justifies the expense, or until you have passed
beyond the confines ofthe signs shown to you above.
Take care that you always begin your excavation low down and as
nearly as possible at the base or root ofthe mountain, in such a way and
manner that the mine proceeds in a straight line to cross the vein of ore in
Figure i. Smithy and other buildings at the mine entrance.
the shortest or surest way that is indicated. For often, though the mine is
well begun by the miners, it is not well followed through, because they
do not know how to continue. The greatest attention must be given to
this, because they are often attracted by hope into certain little branches
of the ore that are encountered on the way. Although there often
branch off from the main path little veins that should be followed, one
should never abandon the direction of the outlined path, but always
continue ahead.
In addition to the other instructions, keep this in mind: that in mining
one should avoid as much as possible cutting into weakened or soft rocks,
because these are liable to collapse and ore is rarely found in them; but if
they are encountered and it seems unwise to avoid them, then wherever
such a danger shows itself, for your own security in not losing the money
expended for the mine and for the safety of the lives of your miners, I
advise you to use every possible care in reinforcing the mine with arches
of brickwork and transverse timbers in the form of armored beams or
PREFACE THE LOCATION OF ORES 19
else with thick and powerful upright supports made ofgood strong wood
from oak or other trees.
This is the method by which you should proceed in excavating the
mine in order to enjoy more surely the fruit ofyour labors. The ancients
used another method, by which, as is seen in old abandoned mines, instead
of beginning from the bottom at the roots of the mountains (as the
modems do), they began the mine in the upper part of the mountain
where the ore appeared in hght of day at the surface, and digging down
as in wells they followed it to the bottom, now here, now there, as it
appeared. I have thought it well to mention this, since to many people
such a way seems much better and to be more certain offinding the ore
than to mine on the side. They say this because there is always ahead of
the mine that little or much which is found as a thread to follow with
certainty in proceeding to find the large mass, just as ifit could be seen.
But whoever considers this matter carefully will realize that the moderns
have understood the necessity of doing as they do, as is seen in regard to
the greater convenience and the certainty that this method will produce
more than the other. In the old method there are difficulties in descending
and ascending the mine, and danger of being trapped because of the
greater possibility ofcaving in, in addition to the greater effort in bringing
forth the ore and other fragments of excavated rocks. Above all, the
moderns have a better understanding because ofthe impossibility [in the
old method] of being able to dispose of the waters which often are so
abundant that they multiply the owner’s expense and labors through the
great number ofhelpers required in order to make wheels, pumps, pipes,
pistons, and other similar contrivances for drawing out the water. And
with all these they often cannot do enough to avoid being conquered by
the water, so that they are obliged to abandon their useful and honorable
enterprise. Hence, to conclude, I say (as you may well understand) that it
is a much better and surer method to begin excavating at the root ofthe
mountain rather than at the top or upper ridge and to penetrate within
little by little. In order to make it easier for the waters to run off and for
the workmen to carry, there should be a gradual rise ofhalf a hraccio every
ten canne. Always take your bearings from the signs which are shown out¬
side, doing this with the compass that sailors usually use as a guide to
keep the excavation continually in a straight line, and using the greatest
skill and art in order to arrive at the point ofthe greatest mass, where the
cause is that has shown you the fumosity and mineral signs on the surface.
20 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
In this connection I must not fail to tell you how in the Duchy of
Austria between Innsbruck and Halle I saw many years ago a large valley
surrounded by many mountains, between which passed a river with much
water. In almost all the neighboring mountains some kind of an ore was
mined, principally copper and lead, although in almost all some silver was
found. Among others in these mountains I saw one in which the people
of that country, spurred on by the sight ofmany signs, began to mine in
the said way, and as they mined they advanced little less than two miles,
by my estimate, before they saw the sparkle and shadow ofore, and when
they had almost arrived with the mine at a point perpendicularly beneath
the signs that they had seen above ground, they encountered a vein of
very hard limestone in a stratum thicker than one and a half catme. They
passed through this with great effort and time, using strong iron tools
tempered to a greater hardness than that rock, and having passed through
it they encountered a very thick vein of copper ore. The mine was such
that, when I was there looking, I saw a wall of the hardest limestone
forming a very large open space where more than two hundred men
stood working at one time, both above and below, having no other light
than that of lanterns. And wherever the ore showed itself they made
various cuts, assiduously working in both night and day shifts, a thing
that surely seemed to me great and marvelous, as well as the mine. At the
mouth ofthe mine I saw a great quantity of ore that had been excavated,
some separated and some ready to be separated; among this was one piece
ofsolid pure ore which was ofsuch a grade and weight that a pair ofgood
horses with a wagon could scarcely have moved it, let alone drawn it.
As I have said, this was an ore of copper, but in order to increase its
importance they called it silver, because it contained more than a suffi¬
cient quantity of that substance to cover the expenses, and in addition
they had the copper that was its companion; hence (as you can under¬
stand) they derived the greatest profit from it. Furthermore, I wish to tell
you that there was in the middle ofthe mine a channel which collected all
the waters that feU continuously from the various openings and issued in
such quantities that I surely believe it would have satisfied every demand
of a large mill. In going in and out of the mine I remember that because
ofwater above and water below I was as soaked as ifI had passed through
a heavy rain, but this did not surprise me since I had always understood
that water was the primary and peculiar companion of minerals, indeed
that it was perhaps the very reason for the generation oftheir substance.
PREFACE THE LOCATION OF ORES 21
For this reason, as I have already said, experts in speaking ofthis give it as
a universal rule that all mountains from which abundant waters spring
also abound in minerals.
As I pondered on this the greatness ofit came to my mind and I began
to speak thus: ifthose who are owners ofthe present mine had begrudged
the expense, or the long road, or if through fear of not finding they had
despaired ofit and cowardly abandoned the undertaking or had stopped
before penetrating that hard rock, they would have thrown away in vain
all their money and all their efforts both physical and mental, and they
would not have become very rich and would not possess every conven¬
ience as they now do, nor would they have brought profit to their
superiors, to their relatives, to the country where they were bom, to their
neighbors, or to the poor and rich of these parts, as they have done
through their strength and goodness ofsoul and through their hope and
tenacity. I therefore concluded that whoever begins such an undertaking
should follow it through with the greatest courage and patience, proceed¬
ing at least as far as seems necessary according to the signs, and hoping
always that by going ahead the following day, as may easily happen, may
be the one in which he will discover what he is seeking and so make him¬
self rich and happy. This (as you can understand) is a thing which may
easily happen because the mountains are the matrices of all the most
prized riches and the repository of all treasures, and if you know how to
open the way to them with the aid of good fortune and true skill, you not
only succeed in arriving at the center where such things are hidden, but
also without doubt you will become as rich as the above-named persons
or richer, and will adorn yourselfwith honor, authority, and every other
benefit that riches bring, presupposing that benign Nature, who is most
generous to those who seek her, promises such things and fulfills her
promises abundantly.
For this reason all men who wish to have wealth should turn their
attention to the excavation of mines rather than to warfare, with all its
annoyances, or to commerce, which goes about outwitting the world and
perhaps doing other tiresome things which may be illicit for honest men,
or to going on long and weary journeys over land and water—journeys
full of annoyances and discomforts, among strange and unknown peoples
who are often ofanimal-like natures—or to applying oneself (as many do)
to the fabulous philosopher’s stone in the hope of enslaving its elusive
service to make fixed silver or to perform magic rites, or to other things
22 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
vain and without foundation. And though I believe this gift of finding
ores to be a special grace of God, it is nevertheless necessary either to be
bom where these things are naturally produced or to go there and by
seeking try to find them, and when they are found to receive the grace by
mining, aiding the favor offortune and your own inclination with per¬
severance and natural goodjudgment. And even this is not sufficient, for,
in addition to the capacity for making a beginning and then carrying it
through, it is necessary to be wealthy, so that ifit is not possible to do all
that you wish by your own efforts you can add thereto the work ofhired
men.
But now leaving aside the discussion of these things and presupposing
that you have made the excavation and that you not only have found the
ore you were seeking but also have brought out a great quantity ofit into
the open, it is necessary now—indeed it is one of the first considerations
which you must make before excavating—that you begin to consider and
examine the availability ofthe things you need, and the supplies that are
found there, as, for instance, the wood, water, and food supply, all of
which must be abundant. There must be enough wood for the needs of
the mine, to make charcoal for smelting, roasting, refining, and other
fires, in addition to the wood necessary for making props for the mines, as
well as for constructing machines, huts, and other similar things. Then it is
necessary to see that the sites for erecting the machines have good air and
plenty ofwater with good falls. For convenience in making charcoal it is
necessary to have wood near by, but it is also necessary that it be near the
mines.
But of all the inconveniences, shortage ofwater is most to be avoided,
for it is a material ofthe utmost importance in such work because wheels
and other ingenious machines are driven by its power and weight. It can
easily raise up large and powerful bellows that give fresh force and vigor
to the fires; and it causes the heaviest hammers to strike, mills to turn, and
other similar things whose forces are an aid to men (as you can see), for it
would be almost impossible to arrive in any other way at the same desired
ends because the lifting power of a wheel is much stronger and more
certain than that of a hundred men. For this reason it is necessary to take
the greatest care not only as to the places where the said machine is to be
constructed but also to make it as strong as necessary and as convenient as
possible for bringing the ore and charcoal there, so that with each one of
these operations there is a saving of time, effort, and expense. Each one
PREFACE THE LOCATION OF ORES 23
alone lightens the labor, and the nearer they are together the better. But
because it is not always possible to have everything convenient, you must
decide whether it is more profitable to have the charcoal or the ore close
to the building; then make this as near as possible, depending on the con¬
venience of the water. If possible, it is better that the charcoal, the ma¬
chine, and the mine be all together in one unit, but this is not possible ex¬
cept when they are so located by chance.
Now concluding, in addition to what I have told you concerning the
discovery and mining of ores and ah the other considerations, I will tell
you more, and I exhort you to put it into practice by seeing that you have
an ore ofsome metal ofyour own, because in this way you will have the
possibility ofextracting those supreme riches which you desire and which
your merits deserve. Then I remind you that after you have found the
mountain and have begun mining you must continue ever courageously
ahead with every care and ddigence in order to find the ore, applying
your skill with a determined spirit and good judgment, because in this
work these qualities serve you in place of eyes to penetrate where your
eyes cannot reach. Nor must you believe what many say, that you will
fmd such things by digging at random, for although this might happen
you must place more faith in art and good practice than in chance.
When in mining you penetrate into the mountain, remember to guide
the cut of your mine so that it will cross the vein of the ore when you
have arrived there, because, if you should follow along its course as you
go, you would have to follow it a great distance at the thickness of a
fmger or perhaps less, and thus you might easily lose it without ever being
able to fmd it again. The same thing might happen if you should begin a
mine and then abandon it through cowardice because ofthe expense, like
many others who, not finding the ore at the first strokes as they would
wish, and, despairing of ever being able to find it, abandon the undertak¬
ing as a thing not only without profit but harmful, judging that they are
earning something if they do not add more expense to that which they
call a loss. Thus infuriated they leave it, not thinking that they may have
left the fruit of their sowing to another who may continue their work,
that fruit which they might have found an arm’s length away or even at a
palm’s or perhaps at two fingers’ width, or indeed beneath the very skin.
Thus of their own free will they may easily leave their happiness aban¬
doned. This has indeed happened to many.
Therefore, before beginning to mine one should decide that he will carry
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
24
it forward with all his strength, casting away every weakness and having
no fear ofexhaustion in his path, and at the end applying all his force with
every possible care and without remorse, ifhe wishes honor and profit to
result therefrom in place ofshame and loss. To you, if you should ever do
any mining, I say in addition to the aforesaid precepts that you must use
aU dihgence in excavating, having your miners work night and day and
ordering shifts every six or eight hours, depending on the number of
Figure 2. Miners’ tools, ore barrows, and baskets.
workmen you have, and putting new and rested men to work, so that you
may arrive as soon as possible at the designated point. For I believe that
herein lies the greatest advantage and profitable contentment ofwhoever
wishes to possess the things that he desires; and for this reason I urge you
to act without restraint.
Because it is necessary to make many arrangements that it is impossible
to speak ofin general, you must vary the form ofthe tools according to
the needs ofthe place and the nature ofthe ores, for there is a difference
between mining ores that are found in marble, travertine, hmestone,
colombinOj or other similar hard stone, and mining those in loose or soft
stones. For excavating and breaking rocks strong and powerful tools are
required, Hke large hammers and iron picks, long thick crowbars, mat¬
tocks and strong spades, picks both with and without handles, and similar
iron tools, all offine and well-tempered steel. It is not necessary to men¬
tion those used for excavating ores in softer stones, because ordinary tools
are sufficient and necessity teaches which, ones are to be used, although
PREFACE THE LOCATION OF ORES 25
these are chiefly hammers the length of a hraccio and the width ofzpalmo,
picks ofthe same size, hoes, mattocks, and shovels. There must be a suffi¬
cient quantity for every need of all the kinds that are needed both in the
soft and hard stones, so that the workers may not lose time and thus may
bring the greatest profit to the owners. Besides this there must be many
baskets, large and small, sacks made of untanned skins, and barrows with
and without wheels to carry broken pieces out ofthe mines. Likewise it is
necessary to have great quantities of oily hquids that may be burned such
as oil ofohves, nuts, linseed, hempseed, resin oftrees, or extracts ofthe fat
ofland animals or fish, for it is impossible to work underground without
the light offire. This fire cannot be kept alive unless the mine has some
hole for air, either a wooden pipe or some other opening.
26 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
[i] THE FIRST CHAPTER
Concerning the Ore ofGold and Its Qualities in Detail. Because gold is a compound mineral praised by philosophers and
all wise men as being of the highest perfection among all mixed
minerals, and because ofits great beauty, it is the universal opinion
that it possesses extraordinary powers which are beneficial to man. For
this reason it is the thing esteemed most highly in this world, after living
creatures. Hence, I, too, in order to honor it, wish to begin by speaking
ofit now rather than of any of the other metals, and I wish in particular
to tell you ofits generation and ofits most obvious qualities, for, although
it is a metal very widely known and one that is desired and sought after
by all kinds of persons, I know of few who take the trouble to find out
what its substance or natural form may be.
But, in order that you too may not be one ofthose who know it only
by name or by the appearance that it shows outwardly to us, I tell you
that its original and peculiar materials are none other than elemental sub¬
stances, with the quantity and quality of each proportioned equally one
to the other and very finely purified. From this union of elements which
are ofequal force there is bom a pleasing and perfect elemental mixture,*
and then after fermentation and decoction the elements finally become
* Biringuccio’s ideas regarding the formation ofthe metals are essentially Aristotelian.
The four elements, earth, air, fire, and water, or the associated elemental quahties, are
drawn or forced into combination, called mistion, which we have translated as “elemental
mixture.” The true metals are formed from this, after a certain ripening period, in which
the influence of the planets is sometimes assumed, though Biringuccio generally denies
this. The various individual metals result from a predominance or deficiency of one or
more ofthe elemental qualities. In some places Biringuccio talks ofa primordial matter—
priwd materia—which seems to be much the same as mistion and becomes metal by a
suitable ripening process. The idea of growth and ripening explained the formation of
the more easily reduced oxidized ores near the surface of mineral deposits, above the
deep-lying “marcasites” (sulphide minerals) that would not give metal on simple
smelting.
Biringuccio used the unquahfied word miniera only to cover those minerals from which
metals could be extracted by the means at his disposal. Mezzi minerali, semiminerals, were
those that possessed the color, crystallinity, luster, weight, and general appearance of a
mineral, though no malleable metal could be extracted. Brittle materials like antimony
were not thought to be metallic, for they lacked the malleability that was considered an
essential characteristic of a metal.
In the Itahan, miniera is used both for the ore and for the mineral contained in it. We
have followed the context in distinguishing between them.
CHAPTER I GOLD ORE 27
fixed, permanent, andjoined together in such a union that they are almost
inseparable, so that by the power ofthe heavens or oftime or ofthe order
of most wise Nature, or by all these together these substances are con¬
verted into that metallic body called gold.
This metal, as has been said, becomes dense because of its thorough
tempering and its perfect and uniform elemental mixture, and of such a
density that it is given not only an ordinary permanence but almost an
incorruptibility and an incapacity to contain any superfluous material,
even if it is subtle and in small amount. For this reason it does not rust,
even though it be in the earth or in water for a long time, for neither of
these has any effect on it, nor does fire, which has the power to reduce to
ashes or dissolve every created thing; indeed gold not only defends itself
from fire but continually purifies itselftherein and becomes more beauti¬
ful. Likewise this aforesaid perfect union causes its body to be without
phlegm or superfluous unctuousness, wherefore it is always bright and
beautiful in its uniform coloring, and when rubbed against something it
leaves no black or yellow mark as almost all other metals do; nor does it
have any effect on the senses of smeU or taste, nor is it poisonous as are
some ofthe others ifit is eaten either intentionally or [it^] by accident—
indeed as a medicine it is beneficial in certain illnesses. Nature with her
own virtue has endowed gold, as a singular privilege, with power to
comfort weakness of the heart and to introduce there joy and happiness,
disposing the heart to magnanimity and generosity of works. Many
learned men say that this power has been conceded to it by the benign
influence ofthe sun and that for this reason it gives so much pleasure and
benefit with its great powers—particularly to those who have great sacks
and chests full ofit.
In short, this metal is malleable and of a shining color almost hke that
shown to us by the sun. It has in it a certain natural and intrinsic attraction
which causes men to desire it when they see it. For this reason many
virtues are attributed to it that make men hold it very dear. Although
many cry out loudly against it, denouncing it as the seed of pestilential
and monstrous avarice and the cause of many evils, yet many praise it as
useful. But let us leave aside this discussion as to whether the evil or the
good which it does predominates, for this would be a long and useless
debate. Therefore, I repeat once more that the worthy qualities it pos¬
sesses have caused me to treat it first before any of the other metals, and
particularly because it seems to me that the plan ofmy work requires it,
28 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
SO that I may better descend later to the level ot the other metals. Thus, if
in our country of Italy good fortune should give to you or another the
possibihty of working with gold, you would not find yourself without
instruction. I have done this willingly in order that you may acquire more
learning and because I am certain that new information always gives birth
in men’s mind to new discoveries and so to further information. Indeed I
am certain that it is the key that arouses mtelligent men and makes them,
if they wish, arrive at certain conclusions that they could not have
reached without such a foundation, or even nearly approached. Therefore
in addition to what I have already told you in general, I will now tell you in
particular concerning the nature and generation of gold and also, so as to
omit nothing, the signs of the places where it is produced and generated.
Finally, after I have told you how it is possible to find the ore I shall tell
you how it is to be purified ofits superfluous earthiness.
Because I cannot say that I have seen with my own eyes mountains
which contain gold ores or places where the practice of such work is
carried on, I shall tell you only what I have been told by trustworthy
persons as I carefully tried to understand, or else what I have learned by
reading various authors. From these I have gathered that it is true that
most ofthis metal is found in Scythia* and in those regions called oriental,
perhaps because the sun seems to shine forth with greatest vigor in those
places. Among these it is said that the Indies hold first place, particularly
those islands which as we hear are called Peru,’]' recently discovered by
the naval armada of the sacred King of Portugal and of His Majesty the
Emperor, [2] and stiU other places. Also, gold is found in many localities
in Europe such as Silesia, many parts ofBohemia, Hungary, in the Rhine,
and in the Apsa. Plinyf says that it is also found in Asturia and in Lusi¬
tania and that the Romans extracted twenty-three pounds every year.
And speaking thus ofthis precious metal I believe that it is certain that
it is and can be generated in all those places where the heavens influence
* An ill-defined region to the north ofthe Black Sea. From Pliny.
f Pizzaro’s conquest of Peru was in 1531, only a few years before Biringuccio was
writing.
f This is an erroneous quotation from Pliny, who says, “According to certain writers,
the annual yield by this method of Asturia, Gallaecia, and Lusitania amounts to twenty
thousand pounds weight, of which the bulk comes from Asturia, and no other country
has been ceaselessly productive for such a lengthy period.” Natural History, Book XXXIII,
para. 78 (Bailey Translation). Lusitania was roughly the same as modern Portugal while
Gallaecia and Asturia lay to the north ofit.
CHAPTER I GOLD ORE 29
the elemental dispositions and causes. And here wishing particularly to
tell you what I have heard concerning this, I say that gold is generated in
various kinds ofrocks in the most rugged mountains that are completely
barren of soil, trees, and grasses. And of all the rocks for such metal the
best is a blue stone called lapis lazuli, which has a blue color similar to the
sapphire, but is neither so transparent nor so hard. It is also found in
orpiment and even more it is found associated with the ores of other
metals. Much is also found in the river sands ofmany regions. That which
is found in mountains is in the form of veins between one stratum and
another, united with the blue rock, and indeed is much mixed in with
this. They say that such ore is better the heavier and the more full ofcolor
it is, and the more flecks of gold appear in it. They also say that it is gen¬
erated in another rock similar to saline marble but of a duller color, and in
still another rock whose color is yellow with many red specks in it. They
also say that it is found in certain black rocks, scattered loosely about like
small stones in a river. And furthermore they say that it is likewise found
in a certain bituminous earth of color similar to clay and that such earth is
very heavy and has a strong sulphurous odor. The gold extracted there¬
from is very beautiful and almost completely pure, but it is very difficult
to get out because it is ofthe finest grain, almost like atoms, so that the eye
distinguishes it with the greatest difficulty. Nor can one proceed as with
lapis lazuli or other rocks or as one treats river sands, for when it is found
there, and even more when it is washed, it falls only with difficulty to the
bottom, and, growing vitreous on melting, it becomes pasty with the
matrix and its earthy matter. Nevertheless, in the end it is possible to
recover it using the greatest patience with one method or another and
fmaUy with mercury.
As I told you before gold is also found in the sands ofvarious rivers, as
in Spain in theTagus, in Thrace in the Hebrus, in Asia in the Pactolus and the
Ganges, in various rivers in Hungary, Bohemia, and Silesia and in Italy in
the Ticino, the Adda, and the Po. It is not, however, found throughout
their beds but only in particular places where in certain bends there is
some bare gravel, or where the water in times of flood leaves a certain
sandy sediment in which gold is mixed in tiny particles like scales or even
smaller than a grain [2v] offlour. In the winter when the floods pass they
take and carry them almost beyond the bed ofthe river so that when the
waters return to their normal state they cannot easily take them away
again, and thus they form mounds.
30 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
Then in the summer the prospectors for gold wash them with a patient
and ingenious process in order to cleanse away the earthiness. They use
certain wooden tables made of elm or white nut or any other kind of
fibrous wood, whose plane surfaces are shredded with a saw or other iron
tool, and with a hoUowed-out shovel they throw these sands with an
abundance of water onto the tables, which are placed slightly inclined,
one next to the other in a long row. By this means the gold, as the heaviest
material in the sand, falls and, attaching itself to the bottom of those
rough fibers, thus remains separated from the sand.
When they see that a goodly amount has remained they gather it up
carefully, and, when collected, they put it in a wooden vessel hke a boat
for washing sweepings or in a large trencher hollowed out in the middle,*
and wash it again in order to clean it as much as possible. Finally, they
amalgamate it with mercury and pass it through a leather pursef or
cucurbitf so that when the mercury has evaporated the gold remains like
sand at the bottom. This gold is then mixed with a little borax, saltpeter,
or black soap, melted and reduced to its own body, and later is given the
shape of an ingot or other desired form.
This, then, is exactly the method that is used in extracting gold from
river sands. Prospectors often use it in certain seasons and have great profit
therefrom, all the more because this method of cleansing does not require
as much expenditure as do the others for the aid of many men, buildings,
fires, or other apparatus. For this method, one man is enough, together
with a table, a shovel, a little mercury, and sufficient abundance ofwater,
which is a thing pleasant to seek in the summer. Whatever you find,
whether it be much or little, is gold, the value ofwhich you well know.
But now let us cease speaking ofthese things because here perhaps you
or someone else might like to know why such gold is carried by the water
into these river sands and woods and whether indeed it is produced there-
* Agricola {De re metallica, p. 255) has an illustration ofsuch a “wooden vessel like a
boat” for washing ores. The hollow trencher is, of course, a batea.
horsa. This is a small money bag or purse made ofsoft leather and tied at the top with
strings. An excellent illustration ofone in use for separating excess mercury from the solid
amalgam is given by Ercker, page 51 (1580 edition), which we reproduce in the Appen¬
dix, Fig. I.
t boccia. No modem English word is an exact equivalent ofthis as used in Biringuccio’s
time, and we have therefore adopted the archaic word “cucurbit.” The vessel was a wide¬
mouthed flask used for general chemical operations, but particularly for distillation. It
was then fitted with an “alembic,” a term that strictly applies to the head and beak only,
and not, as later, to the entire assembly.
CHAPTER I GOLD ORE 31
in. I have often thought about this, greatly marveling, particularly in
regard to the Ticino, the Adda, and the Po, but the reason is not clear to
me, since although I told you before that great floods ofwater carry it to
where it can be extracted, there is no gold mine near those places or even
one of any other metal that I know of. I am also confused because I have
seen several authors who believe that it is generated in the very place
where it is found; and ifthis were true it would not be true that the waters
had brought it. But that it is generated there seems to me a very difficult
thing to comprehend, since I do not understand whether it is produced by
the innate properties ofthe waters or ofthe earth or indeed ofthe heavens,
for it [3] appears reasonable that ifthe cause were any ofthese it would be
found everywhere in the bed of a given river, and, seeking, one would
find it everywhere at all times. Ifthe influence ofthe heavens is the power¬
ful cause that produces gold, it seems to me that it would necessarily
have to operate instantaneously because it is not possible otherwise to
perceive the order that Nature uses in generating metals. It would have
to produce it first in the open in a place where there is a continuous flow
ofwater, and then it would have to have the power to remove the earthy
materials from place to place and also to mix with it the greatly different
qualities of cold and humidity. And even if this composition and order
begun by the waters of the river should not change, it seems to me that
the rains or floods which pass over it would completely soften, break, and
entirely spoil anything that might be conceived therein. Furthermore,
ifthis material is generated there, I wish to be told why it is generated only
in these and not in other places, and why silver, copper, lead, or one ofthe
other metals similar to gold is not likewise generated in a similar manner,
for these substances are perhaps even easier for Nature to form than gold
because of the many concordances and ultimate perfections that gold
requires. Moreover, in many places in the countryside near Rome par¬
ticles ofiron are found in the sands ofseveral small rivers and I would like
to know why this also is conceded only to certain particular parts ofthe
river and not to aU parts.
For these reasons and visible phenomena it seems more probable that
gold is carried by the water than that it is generated there. Nor does our
dilemma help us to ascertain the truth. For, speaking just between our¬
selves—not with firm conviction, but only to tell you what I think—I say
that I incline toward either of two theories. Of these one is that this phe¬
nomenon occurs only in very large rivers which receive much water from
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
32
springs, streams, and other rivers and so it often happens that, with the
melting ofsnows or the coming ofheavy rains, they wash the banks and
the slopes of near-by mountains, in which it may be that there is earth
that, by its own particular nature, contains the substance of gold; or else
the ores are located in some peak or surface where men have not yet taken
the trouble to go or where access is difficult, and may then be exposed to
insemination by the sun or by the coldness ofthe snows or by the waters,
and broken up because in heavy rains anything is easily worn away
and carried off to the rivers. Alternatively it might be that such earth is
inside the near-by mountains or indeed in the same principal stream that
has its bed hidden from our eyes. Since it is never dried up or free from
continuously rumiing water, it is not strange that in so many centuries the
true origin and knowledge ofsuch a thing should not be understood by
those who live near by.
But however it may be, in the end [31/] the truth is that gold is found in
the sands of many rivers, particularly, according to my information, in
those mentioned above. Therefore, ifI have marveled at this thing, I de¬
serve to be excused, because where it is impossible to understand the
certain cause of things either by reason or by direct observation, doubt
always exists and new reasons for wonder are born. But I marvel even
more greatly at what I have heard told many times as the truth by various
persons: that in several places in Hungary at certain times the purest gold
springs from the earth like grass and wraps itself like the stems of con¬
volvulus around the young dry shoots. It is about as thick as a piece of
string and about four dita long or even a palmo. Apparently Pliny in the
thirty-third book of his Natural history refers to this or a similar thing
when he speaks of ores, incidentally referring to the fact that in his time
this same thing occurred in Dalmatia. Ifwhat is said be true, then indeed
would the farmers in the fields reap the fruits of celestial instead ofterres¬
trial sowing, and they would be considered blessed, since such precious
and pleasing fruits would be produced by God, by the heavens, or by
Nature, without any labor or skill on their part. This would indeed be a
unique grace, since among all the vast amount of earth and number of
possessions that are cultivated by living creatures, none but these regions
are worthy ofsuch a harvest.
What shall I say of what Albertus Magnus writes in his work De
Mineralihus, where he says that he has seen gold generated in the head of a
dead man? He says that when this was dug up by chance and found to be
CHAPTER I GOLD ORE 33
extraordinarily heavy, it was seen to be full ofvery fine sand. Because of
its weight those who saw it thought that it was metal and by experi¬
menting fmally found it to be ofthe purest gold. It seems to me that his
words have no other significance than that the ready disposition of the
thing and the great influence of the heavens had generated this precious
metal. Since I heard it thus, I wanted to pass it on to you. To tell the truth
it is not easy to believe this, and certainly to me it seems incredible, yet
considering who tells of it and thinking how great are the forces of
superior causes and ofNature, we can receive it, having faith and respect
for the learning of those who relate it, since by ourselves we lack full
understanding ofthe causes ofthings.
Since I have begun to tell you of such things I do not wish to omit
describing still another case that I heard happened in a region in Hungary,
perhaps in that place where gold is generated. To those who search for
ores this may give hope offinding gold, and to those who have already
found them it may give some information and encouragement in [4] con¬
tinuing to find others. This is it: Once there was a peasant woman who
habitually went to wash her clothes in a stream where a goodly quantity
of water ran, and she rubbed her clothes on a rock there which seemed
most convenient for her purpose. To her good fortune she discovered
running across the rock a vein of gold as thick as a cord which had become
shining and beautiful and visible to the sight from much rubbing. And
when the woman saw this, not knowing what it was, she went about
greatly marveling and one day told ofit to the men ofher household who
looked at it and decided to fetch someone who understood such things
better than they. Thus at last they found it to be a vein ofpurest gold ex¬
posed to the light of day, and moreover they found that a stratum ofthat
rock crossed the course ofthe water in that stream. Immediately therefore
they took the water and sent it by another way and courageously began to
excavate this ore. To this day there is mining there, and already perhaps
hundreds of years have passed in which gold has been continually re¬
moved, so that this thing not only enriches that region but also abun¬
dantly supplies all Christendom.
I wished to tell you ofthis in order to encourage you never to lack the
desire to understand everything that may be useful; even ifit were but a
shadow, you must always give eye and ear to it and must despise nothing
nor have fear of any of those things which may harm. For, as you see, if
credence and due consideration had been denied to the words ofthe old
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
34
woman, such a useful thing would not have been found then, or perhaps
never afterwards. Although they were drawn on by a reasonable hope and
by the necessity of doing it in order to continue, nevertheless those who
began the excavation did not lack courage in making another bed for the
river that covered the gold, even though there was little to be seen.
Gold and silver, however little there may be, almost always give a
profit above the expenses and always the deeper one goes into the rock,
the more one finds, as with every kind of ore, although experienced
searchers for gold say that this metal is never found in such large masses or
in such quantities as are other metals. Perhaps they are right, but one must
not believe from this that where a little is generated a great deal may not
be; for ifthis were true the scarcity of gold would not be surprising. But
to me it seems that in this world the benignity ofNature concedes a great
deal, and that a great quantity ofgold always has been and is found among
men, especially when we think in how many places there is a continual
addition thereto every day, both in mountains and in the sands of the
rivers as well as in that mined in association with other metals. We have
proofofthis when we consider how much [4^] is consumed by painters as
ornamentation for their work, by goldsmiths who make objects ofsolid
gold as well as using it for gilding and covering other metals, also that
which is consumed by weavers for tapestries and cloths, that which
women in their vanity waste for their adornment, and that which the
alchemists bum and send up in smoke by the force offire and powerful
action ofmaterials. Likewise think how much is hidden by avarice in walls
and in the ground, or is sealed up in strong and chained boxes with many
devices and triplicate keys, in addition to that which is scattered and ever
goes about through the world in the service of men and for the conven¬
ience of trade. Considering this, he who says that but a little is produced
will surely see that throughout the world a large quantity is found, even
though there be but few who satisfy their thirst for it as they would wish.
Speaking particularly ofItaly, although a mine has never appeared here,
she has been more richly endowed than many other regions through the
virtues of her good and talented men in every age, even though she has
been many times despoiled and tom asunder by various nations, as in
our own times by the bestial hands of barbarous nations who came here
more than forty years ago.* Who knows but that once again God may
* The first French invasion of Italy, under Charles VIII, took place in the autumn of
1494. Supposedly, therefore, Biringuccio was writing after 1534.
CHAPTER I GOLD ORE 35
not grant us the possibility of punishing them as in other times our
ancient and valorous forefathers did, and of going into their very homes
in order to force them to return our possessions to us with double usury?
Perhaps if He does not permit this, He may grant that some rich gold
mine be discovered in our land. Considering this, and seeing that our land
ofItaly is full ofas many other excellent qualities as heaven can concede to
habitable places, I cannot believe that this gift of gold can be completely
lacking to her, since she is so rich and abundant in all the other ores that
Nature produces except gold and tin. But it seems to me that we must be￾heve that these two also exist and that they have not yetshown themselves
in the light of day and to man. I am persuaded ofthis by the gold that is
found in the said rivers and also by the semiminerals that are found, some
of which, one may believe, following experienced men, give almost
certain indication of gold since they are one ofits peculiar natural agents,
and until they are found and actually handled, it cannot be said that gold
does not exist.
It is true that up to now I do not know that pure gold (with the excep¬
tion ofthat used in commerce) has been found in our region other than in
two ways, both ofwhich produce but little. One ofthese is that ofwash¬
ing the sands ofrivers; and the other is that ofthe laborious and subtle art
ofseparating gold from newly smelted silver, from gilded things, or from
other metals that contain some gold—for as I have told you there are but
few ofthese that do not have some particle of gold accompanying them,
some more and some less, [5] depending on the elemental mixture and
fixed permanency oftheir materials, or else on the quality and force of the
planets that have influenced them.
And this, in short, is all the gold that is found in our country ofItaly,
unless perhaps, as curious and subtle speculators believe, there may be here
some practical philosopher who might make with his art the large quan¬
tity that their books (more like recipe books that are not understood than
books of philosophers) promise to their believers. Certainly I am more
inclined to believe in this because ofthe authority ofsome of them than
because ofany good reasons for it that I have ever heard. The more I look
into this art oftheirs, so highly praised and so greatly desired by men, the
more it seems a vain wish and fanciful dream that it is impossible to
realize unless someone should find some angelic spirit as patron or should
operate through his own divinity. Granted the obscurity ofits beginnings
and the infinite processes and concordances that it needs in order to
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I 36
reach its destined maturity, I do not understand how anyone can rea¬
sonably believe that such artists can ever do what they say and promise.
That this is true is shown by considering how many philosophers there
have been in the world through many centuries who were most learned,
informed, and experienced in things ofNature; and also how many great
princes who with money and authority have had the power to have this
work done and to aid all skdlful men who work in this art. These men in
order to arrive at such a port have equipped their vessels with sails and
hard-working oarsmen and have sailed with guiding stars, trying every
possible course, and, finally, submerged in the impossible (according to
my belief) not one ofthem to my knowledge has yet come to port.
But many are quoted by the credulous, who advance the authority of
hearsay in place ofreasons for possible success or facts that can be demon¬
strated. Among others they cite Hermes, Arnold, Raymond, Geber,
Occam, Craterrus, the holy Thomas, Pariginus, and a Brother Elias ofthe
order of St. Francis—which one I don’t know. To these, because of the
dignity of their philosophical learning or because of their holiness, the
credulous demand that a certain respect be accorded through faith so that
whoever listens either is silent through ignorance or confirms what they
say. But it is not in this way that such men persuade those who have good
judgment that the art ofalchemy is true; for it is evident that in their desire
for riches they become blind with creduhty, and when they seek to per¬
suade the minds of others that this art is true, the fact of their evident
poverty belies them. This is especially so since they cannot quote as their
own the authority of Aristotle, that most divine scrutator of all the
sciences and of every other secret of Nature, or indeed of the most
learned Commentator,* or ofany of those many worthy ancient philoso¬
phers who fed on no other food than speculation and the loftiness of
philosophic [5^] blessedness, nor can they quote the authority ofPliny or
Albertus Magnus, both of whom, like eager hunting dogs, have always
Journeyed throughout all the regions and shores of the world, seeking
with all possible care to understand the wonders and powers of Nature.
And like a wheel violently turned which cannot stop when it is left
alone, so I too after having fallen into this discourse cannot restrain my-
* We believe that this refers to Averroes, the twelfth-century Arab philosopher who
hved in Cordoba and is usually referred to as the “great commentator” on Aristotle. This
follows the 1550 and later editions, for the first edition reads “most holy {santissimo) com¬
mentator,” who cannot be identified.
CHAPTER I GOLD ORE 37
self from going on to give you in full my opinion about the matter, al¬
though I know that, if perchance some who are passionately devoted to
this art should read my work, they would denounce me, accusing me of
ignorance and presumption—and ifI should hear them, I would patiently
agree so as not to quarrel with them. But even ifthey are more intelligent
than I am in this, I do not envy them the blessedness oftheir knowledge.
I must tell you that with diligent study I have looked at many books con¬
taining such things and not only have I had discussions with many experi¬
enced men, but I have not refrained from attempting to make some ex¬
periments myselfin order to understand it better. I have also taken care to
hsten to the opinion of wise and experienced persons, as I have heard
them subtly arguing whether such things are true or only fantastic dreams.
And finally, taking all the alchemistic principles and comparing them
with the processes ofNature, and pondering on the procedure ofthe one
and ofthe other, it seems to me that there is no proportion between their
powers, granting that Nature operates in things from within and causes
all of her basic substances to pass wholly one into the other; while art,
very weak in comparison, follows Nature in an effort to imitate her, but
operates in external and superficial ways, and it is very difficult, even im¬
possible, for her to penetrate things. And presupposing that through this
it were granted to men to have those basic and particular materials from
which Nature composes metals, I would like to be told how they can
receive at will the influence of the heavens, on which are dependent all
inferior things on this convex ofthe world, and also how men ever know
by this art how to purify those elemental substances or how to proportion
necessary quantities one to the other, or fmally how to carry these sub¬
stances to perfection as Nature does and make metals of them. I do not
believe that anyone could accomphsh all this unless men were not only
geniuses but also angels upon earth, and therefore I believe that those err
who expend their energies on this art, standing with long and continuous
vigil always ardent in their desire and in the conduct of their operations,
more inflamed than the very coals in their furnaces in the effort to see
whether they can bring the adamantine hardness ofsuch fruit to ripeness.
God’s aid would be needed to do this and those who knew how to do such
things would be called not men but gods, for they would extinguish the
insatiable thirst ofavarice in this world and in the extraordinary [6] excel¬
lence oftheir knowledge would by far outstrip the power ofNature (she
who is mother and minister of aU things created, daughter of God, and
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I 38
soul of the world) if they should use methods that perhaps she does not
possess, or, ifshe does have them, does not employ to such ends.
Certainly I am not deceived in this, for I see that the mothers in which
they wish to find this birth have wombs offactitious glass, and the mate¬
rials they use in place of sperm are things extraneously composed, and
likewise the heats that they apply are intermittent and intemperate fires,
very unlike natural ones since they lack a certain proportion ofnourishing
and augmentative substance. It is the same with the times, the measures,
and the weights necessary for such results. And who doubts that the basic
substances which they wish to use are secondary matter, things mixed and
composed by art, whereas Nature, according to naturalists, uses nothing
but the purest; What more childish folly is there than to believe that men
with their wit can shorten the time of parturition ofthose things, when
even Nature, wishing to make them perfect, cannot do this—perhaps be¬
cause they have need of the specific length of time that she gives them?
It would certainly be very useful to bring the sown seed to immediate
fruition in order to serve human needs in time offamine.
The reason why they say this is easily understood, for our age cannot
await the slow working oftime, and the credulous are nourished with the
hope ofshortening time and are told that by means oftheir industrious art
they can turn back the effects determined by Nature and reduce them to
primary matter. They say that they withdraw spirits from bodies and
make them return there at will like a blade in the scabbard. Though I be¬
lieve that those substances which are called spirits in things can be with¬
drawn and reduced to vapor by the violence offire, I do not beheve that
once drawn forth they can ever be returned, for such a thing could not be
done except through knowing how to make the dead hve again.
In order to puff themselves up more they say that with their art they
surpass Nature in that they not only reanimate things but also give them
the vegetal power of animating others and this Nature has perhaps not
done because she did not know how or did not so desire. This seems to me
the more difficult because, as I have said, when the metals are reduced to
their ultimate perfection, it must be believed that they have arrived at a
fmal point which exceeds the arrangement oftheir materials and that the
basic nutritive moisture has been converted into maturity in order to
attain its end, and also perhaps, by being passed through the violence of
fire when it was purified, it is possible that it has had some line of life
broken and has taken on a new character which it did not have before.
CHAPTER I GOLD ORE 39
Ruminating on these things I remain uncertain as to how those credu¬
lous men can be ofsuch perverted vision that they do not discern as they
should these things which are so obvious and true. But the great desire
[6y] that they have to become rich causes them to gaze in the distance and
hinders them from seeing the intermediate steps because they are thinking
only of the final result, folding about them the shadow of the happiness
that they would derive from such a thing. And indeed ifthey should suc¬
ceed in accordance with their dreams they could truly be called blessed,
for they would possess the means ofsatisfying every desire, surpassing the
grandeur of any great prince (whoever he might be) in force of arms, in
magnificence and greatness of buildings, or in benefiting the province
with virtuous and magnanimous Hberality, or in conquering the Turks in
war and thus exalting to the skies the Christian law, as they could. With
these and other similar excellent works they could make themselves
glorious and immortal.
What greater folly could men commit than to waste their time in fol¬
lowing the other arts and sciences and to fail to study and learn this art
which is so useful and so worthy, nay divine and supernatural, since it has
the power to produce such precious things, indeed even more perfectly
and in greater quantity than Nature herself and with more ease and in
shorter time? This art is one that, ifwe wish, can give us estates and king¬
doms and the grace of gaining entrance to heaven after we are dead by
making donations and building hospitals, monasteries, and temples, and
by continually helping our neighbor, not only by arranging his material
well-being, but also by healing him ifhe is sick, and ifhe is old by return¬
ing him from old age to youth—even in a more perfect condition than he
was before. And likewise through the power which this art has it can
resuscitate the vital force ofthose who have almost passed into the other
life. Sometimes they call this power of theirs the “Quintessence,” and
sometimes the “Philosophers’ Stone,” and sometimes “Potable Gold,”
and they offer to obtain from any natural thing whatever result they
wish, comparing the quintessence to the nature and quahty ofthe heavens
and most powerful stars; the potable gold to the spirit and soul ofthings;
and the philosophers’ stone to the power ofmighty Nature.
But in spite ofall this, the fathers and inventors ofthe art who exalted it
with such high praise are aU dead and have not enjoyed even one period of
youth, to say nothing oftwo or three; and as far as I know they are not
yet raised from the dead as they promised. Certainly it would be a
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I 40
glorious and fine thing and a source ofgreatest contentment to those who
possess such an alchemistic art ifthey should have in their room a cucurbit
or other vessel full ofliquor, dust, or some petrified* thing which, with
gushing abundance and certain continuous outflow, should have the
power to convert quicksilver, engendering gold or silver or whatever
metal they should desire, multiplying every little bit that they have to
infinity. For by producing as much as they wish they will never lack
either silver or gold or the power to use all those excellent and exalted
virtues which such an art promises to the credulous. For this reason they
should not call it by the names that they use, but, if what they say is
true, they could say that they hold [7] prisoner in a bottle that God which
is the creator of aU these things. They could indeed ridicule Nature, as
when they say that with their medicine they wish to correct her defects
and faults, reducing imperfect metals to that perfection which she, in her
weakness, has not been able to reach.
Now in having spoken and in speaking thus I have no thought ofwish¬
ing to detract from or decrease the virtues of this art, ifit has any, but I
have only given my opinion, based on the facts ofthe matter. I could still
discourse profusely concerning this art oftransmutation, or alchemy as it is
called, yet neither through my own efforts nor through those of others
(although I have sought with great diligence) have I ever had the fortune
to see anything worthy of being approved by good men, or that it was
not necessary to abandon as imperfect for one cause or another even
before it was halffinished. For this reason I surely deserve to be excused,
all the more because I know that I am drawn by more powerful reasons,
or perhaps by natural inclination, to follow the path of mining more
willingly than that of alchemy, even though mining is a harder task, both
physical and mental, is more expensive, and promises less at first sight and
in words than does alchemy; and it has as its scope the observation of
Nature’s powers rather than those of art—or indeed ofseeing what really
exists rather than what one thinks exists.
For these reasons the more I think about these works of alchemy the
more discouraged I become, because I do not know nor do I believe that
the true means of creating the elemental substances are known when I see
that those who firmly believe that this art is true use them variously. Fur¬
thermore, I am discouraged because I know the great weakness of our
intellects, from which many errors are bom, especially since we camiot
* The second, third, and fourth editions read “putrified” and that of 1678, “purified.”
CHAPTER I GOLD ORE 41
know the intrinsic virtues and specific powers ofthings, and also because
we do not know how to proceed in administering heats that are identical
with natural ones, and because we do not have the means of providing
remedies for the infinite number of hindrances that occur unexpectedly
during the long and difficult process ofsuch an undertaking. For ifthere
are many such in any process they are excessive in this one, since such an
art is forced to use many different methods, as, for instance, evenly regu¬
lated fires, provided they can be made, and special furnaces and vessels;
and Likewise it is necessary to have the powerful materials very pure and
fine and to make good calcinations, solutions, putrefactions, and scintilla¬
tions, and likewise elemental mixings, decoctions, and incinerations; and
aU must be accurately proportioned to the requirements of the work.
Thus in order to bring these things to a good end it is necessary to make
waters, oils, and divers subhmates from various minerals and herbs, and
each one ofthese must have its perfection. If by chance a cucurbit should
break or the fires should not be as constant as is necessary, or should not be
diminished or increased at opportune times, [jv] or perhaps ifthe things
taken as a basis should lack their proper quality, then the results would
lack perfection. It seems to me impossible that there should be no defects,
for it would not be human to be able to do all these things without some
mishap.
How many alchemists have I heard lamenting, one because by some
unfortunate chance he had spilled his whole composition in. the ashes;
another because he had been deceived by the excessive strength ofthe fire,
so that the substance of his materials had been burned and the spirits in¬
advertently allowed to escape; and yet another because he had poor and
feeble materials! In a word, one for one reason and one for another, in
order to hide either their deception or their ignorance, all defend them¬
selves and make excuses for their art. Finally, to conclude, not seeing any¬
thing else, I think that the hopes oftheir fantastic writings are but masked
shadows, composed by certain itinerant herbalists in order to accredit
themselves or else by other lazy people or by most unfortunate alchemists
to lead the greedy into believing in them so firmly that they wiU aid them
in their needs. In order to lend authority to their recipe books they head
them with the name of an author who not only did not write them but
perhaps never even thought about the subject.
For this reason I tell and advise you that I beheve the best thing to do is
to turn to the natural gold and silver that is extracted from ores rather than
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I 42
that ofalchemy, which I believe not only does not exist but also, in truth,
has never been seen by anyone, although many claim to have seen it. For
it is a thing whose principles are unknown, as I have told you; and who¬
ever does not know the first principles ofthings is even less able to under¬
stand the end. Concerning this I shall teU you that I do not know any
philosopher or clever alchemist who could accomplish enough so that I
would believe that he possessed in himself sufficient power of art to be
able to draw out from a metalHc body or other object its vital spirit and
to replace it again in the same object, as I have told you, and thus to give
vegetal form to something which is not so by its own nature. And who
will ever believe that bread, herbs, and fruits may be converted into
flesh by any heat or artificial digestion in the same way that Nature does;
and likewise that wood that is burned and converted into charcoal like
the ashes ofmetals, or passed through the smelting fire, may begin to bud
again, become green, and engender still other wood? Although I know
that they give all kinds of answers to these things, and you can well
imagine what they may be, it seems more appropriate to touch upon the
extent of their proofs, and ignore their words. For they try to prove the
possibility of their art more by example than by reason, citing the tiny
seeds of grass, the grafting ofplants, the multiplying of a spark offire, the
fermentation within a mass offlour mixed with water, and, for certain of
their propositions, the operations which physicians perform in healing
sick bodies, and other [8] similar and obvious things. In support of their
power to understand and to operate they quote a passage of the Floly
Scriptures, which says: Omnia subiecisti sub pedihus eh/5, * interpreting it to
mean that God has given them the power and authority, in addition to
domination over all the things ofthis world, to understand and put to use
all things in the other world. Among these they say that it is not only
possible to understand the generation of metals but also to effect it with
art, just as Nature herself does. They argue in favor of their art with a
saying ofAristotle concerning the squaring of a circle, when, in order to
prove to those who deny it that it may be true, he says that, although
geometrically it is not found, this does not prove that it does not exist, and
ifit exists, it may still be possible to find it. Likewise, since the generation
of metals does actually occur, it is possible for the art of alchemy to
attain it.
With this and many other reasons they wish to make you believe that
* “Thou hast put all things in subjection under his feet.” Hebrews 2:8.
CHAPTER I GOLD ORE 43
even outside a woman’s body it is possible to generate and form a man or
any other animal with flesh, bones, and sinews, and to animate him with a
spirit and every other attribute that he requires. And in like manner
they say it is possible by art to cause trees and grasses to be bom without
their natural seeds, and to give to fruits separated from trees the form and
color, odor, and flavor oftrue natural fruits; to this I cannot forbear saying
that I do not believe them. And likewise I can make no answer to those
who say that they transmute but do not create, and that they transmute
one species into another, for this cannot be done without the total destruc¬
tion ofthe thing that you wish to transmute.
At last to conclude and leave this discussion, I say that I believe that if
these people accomplish anything they do it only in the same way as
bricklayers make mortar, that is, they put it there with the desire that the
mortar itself turn into stone so that the stones be better joined, for with
that thought the one who was the inventor of this could be seen.* But I
do not wish to consume more time in speaking ofthis art or to annoy you
with further details, or wholly to offend the alchemists (although many
things come to mind that I could say to them, thoughts that press forward
in a throng like dogs happy in the chase, each one desirous ofcoming out
first), nor do I wish that any more ofthese things come out in the open,
since I know that the alchemists become angry with those who speak in
derogatory fashion of their art. Although you are a person who under¬
stands how much good fruit could come from aiding some willing but
inexperienced ones by warning them not to throw their talents unre¬
strainedly into such things, as many do, I am content to have done this
with so little offense. I am also content because, in order to show my
ignorance to the world, the desire may come to some worthy philosopher
and alchemist to bring to light at least the open arguments for their art, if
not the completed work. And thus, after such a noble and fruitful art
[Sv] is made clear and is understood by aU good men of abihty, they will
begin to work and to make gold in the greatest abundance and so make
men rich, secure, and happy. For one of the said reasons these insults of
mine to the alchemists may, I think, benefit many people.
In order not to continue indefinitely, I wish now to make an end ofmy
opinions and discourses that perhaps will seem to you to have been multi¬
plied too greatly. It is indeed true that I am not stopping because I am tired
* Original unclear.
44 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
or satiated, but only because it has carried me too far afield from the pro¬
jected subject, to which I will now return.
Although I have already told you much about the generation of gold
ores and their discovery, I want now to tell you how gold must be sepa¬
rated from its earthy superfluities and particularly the gold that is found
arranged in the form ofveins. Although I have never seen the devices used
for extracting gold, I will now tell what I have understood is necessary for
reducing it by other processes so that ifyou should ever have occasion to
use it in our regions ofItaly, you will not be entirely without enhghten￾ment.
Having excavated and well selected the ore, it is first necessary to con¬
sider in what kind of rock it was engendered. If it is in that rock called
lapis lazuli you must extract the gold and save the stone, because from
such a stone is made that perfect blue color which painters call ultra￾marine. They esteem it highly and pay a large price to whoever collects and
prepares it. To do this it is necessary first to grind it well and make a
powder of it, wash it with water in a boat or other wooden vessel, and
then to rub mercury on it well until all the gold has been amalgamated. In
this way the stone will become freed from the gold. Then by causing the
mercury to pass through a leather purse or cucurbit, the gold remains
separated from the mercury.
If you do not care about saving the stone you can use the common
method ofsmelting it in a furnace or in a lead bath. Ifyou succeed in this
way, you must continue with it, but ifnot, then seek to experiment with
other methods or else try to understand the method that is used where
the work is done nowadays. In my opinion, ifit is not a rock you wish to
save, the best method for reducing it to purity would be to roast the ore
with a slow fire in an open furnace and cause it to evaporate well. Then
have it ground fine with a mill or by stamps connected with a wheel,
wash it thoroughly in order to extract from it all the superfluous matter,
and then purify it by smelting it [on a lead bath] in a cupeling hearth of a
size depending on the quantity, or on a very hot cupel, throwing offthe
lead as litharge or consuming it and reducing the gold to purity.
This is the method you may use almost universally, not only for gold
and its ore, but also for any other kind if you wish. I wanted to describe
these methods of smelting to you here, since I think that in the places
where I shall speak to you in general ofother ores I shall not wish to treat
ofthem again.
CHAPTER 2 SILVER ORE 45
[9] THE SECOND CHAPTER
Concerning the Ore ofSilver and Its Qualities. There are, as I have heard, varying opinions among men experi¬
enced in minerals as to whether silver has its own mineral [i.e.,
occurs native] or not. Mineralogical reasons and the authority ofthe
majority persuade me that it has, not only because I have seen the natural
material separate but also because I know that in mines of gold, copper,
lead, and other metals pieces ofpure metal are found without admixture,
and I have heard that pieces ofsilver, gold, and copper have been found
that had been reduced to their ultimate purity by natural causes. This is
also confirmed by a German, Georgius Agricola, who says* that in a mine
in Saxony a piece ofmetallic silver was found so large that the Duke who
was prince and patron of the place had a whole dining table of square
German style made from it without its being enlarged or worked on by
any human artifice except for the tripod legs, and he often boasted that in
this he surpassed the greamess ofthe Emperor.
In truth I have never seen any metal except copper that was brought out
from the mine pure and without any mineral, but I think that such a thing
is indeed possible, smce I believe in the greatness and power of Nature,
who strives toward no other goal than perfection and purity. Indeed most
of the minerals that I have seen have not been without admixture, not
only oftheir earth but also of other metals, and this is more true ofthat
which I have heard called silver than of any of the others. I except the
silver that is mined in Schio in the region ofVicenza. These doubts, there¬
fore, are not bom without some shadow ofapparent reason.
As I told you above I beheve that silver may have and does have its own
mineral, for every substance that is converted into metal can exist pure by
itselfin its own species, as it also exists separately even though it be mixed
with others, since it is seen that in each ore its metal is generated in a single
body. Therefore it happens many times that whoever speaks ofthe ore of
silver in one breath, without distinction, speaks of that of all the other
metals, because there are few ores that are not mixed. But because the
most noble things always have the prerogative ofincluding in their name
that of the others, where there is gold or silver the ores are not called
* This is in Bcrmanms, Agricola’s first work relating to mineralogy. It was published by
Froben in 1530.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I 46
copper, lead, or iron, which are the most abundant in them, but gold or
silver, even though the quantity ofthese is far less.
But leaving these things, I now say to you that, as far as I have ob¬
served, the more such ores are mixtures ofvarious metals the more varied
are the fumosities and tinctures that they show to our eyes as signs oftheir
location and purity, because each one [91^] gives offits own color, staining
the external rock a blue, green, yellow, or indistinct color according to the
composition and mixture of the primary matter of the metals, and like¬
wise there is more or less color depending on the quantity that is found
gathered there. Now speaking particularly ofthis metal called silver, the
natural philosophers say that it is generated from a substance that is more
watery than fiery, and that all the other substances are similar and pure;
not so much so, however, as are those of gold. Therefore it attains a lesser
perfection, and it is as much less perfect as the influence ofthe moon is less
than that ofthe sun, although it is much nearer to us.
Practical men say that silver generates itself willingly in a rock similar
to limestone and also in a stone that is a dark, dull gray in color; and it is
often found in another stone similar to travertine, or in travertine itself. Its
mineral is very heavy and often has a shining grain; the smaller this is and
the more pointed like scurf, the more perfect it is, because it shows purity
and fixity. When it is found in a white and leady stone it is much better
because it is easily separated from its rock and from its earthiness. And
when it is found loose, almost in the skin ofthe earth like pebbles, they say
that it is perfect, although it does not have a certain brilliant quality to the
eyes as the others usually have. They say that it is also engendered in a
dark gray soil, and when it is in this, it occurs in great quantities and in
great perfection and there is much within the mountain. It is so much the
better the more shining it is and the more rusty or red its color.
In order that you may understand the signs of the minerals of the said
metal better, you must know that always before the minerals are found
there are, either near them or mixed together with them, marcasites of a
yellow color like gold. The yellower these are, the more they indicate burn¬
ing and heat, which is opposed to the nature oftheir metal. For this reason
it is possible tojudge the fat or lean quality ofsuch a mineral by the degree
of color that they show. Now those that give good indications must
approach white as nearly as possible and be of minute grain and in small
quantities. This is a general rule for all marcasites, that the closer together
and the finer they are the better the minerals that they point out. Often
CHAPTER 2 SILVER ORE 47
there is found a vein ofthis silver mineral that is large in quantity but is so
lean in value that it does notjustify the expense ofmining, for, although
the quantity is there, it is in a hard rock hke Hmestone which is most diffi¬
cult to cut. At other times it is found in company with copper or lead,
and in this case also one must not waste effort in extracting it if its value
does not more than cover the expenses.
These metals are often all three found together in a single ore and when
[lo] this happens it is necessary to use care and the cunning ofart. Suppos¬
ing that you wish to separate the silver, it is necessary to increase the lead;
and if you do not care to save either the silver or the lead, but only the
copper, it is necessary to proceed for a long time with strong fires until the
weaker materials are consumed; but this happens most often in minerals
which contain iron. But, after aU, in neither the one nor the other is it
possible to give a general rule. It is necessary to choose according to their
quality and quantity, all the more so because they are often mixed with
some dry earth or a quantity ofantimony or arsenic that is entirely evapo￾rable, or combustible materials, or else they are difficult to reduce. For
this reason the artisans, often weary and overcome by this difficulty,
abandon the ore as useless; but many times the cause may be attributed to
their inexperience with the extraordinary and long fires that are apphed.
Whoever goes directly to these in the ordinary way, if he does not
accompany them with things that protect them from the fire in smelting,
finds that they become useless, and he encounters those effects I mentioned
before. One ofthose substances that are burned or else are too watery is
called sulphur and the other is called mercury not yet fixed, that is,
arsenic. If it happens that there is an excess of one of these it burns the
silver, while the other carries it away so that nothing remains of the
ore except the earthiness which is often infusible. Therefore, in order to
save the mineral, it is necessary to use patient skill and appropriate
processes.
First, in the most commonly used method, the ores must be roasted,
or, without being roasted, they must be ground finely and then washed
well, and finally they must be purified, either with a very hot fire, or at
least with a great lead bath. In order to do this most easily, they must be
tested after they have been ground up to see whether they can be amal¬
gamated with mercury, either in the same grinding mill or elsewhere.
This is an excellent method if they are dry, and I know that it has been
used by many with great profit, and particularly in that type ofmineral.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
rich and good, which I told you before is mined in the region ofVicenza
at Schio. I tell you to test them because not every kind ofore responds to
it.
And of that which I have mentioned I have heard that one piece was
excavated which contained a quarter silver and another more than a half.
This was found almost on the surface, loose and in open areas, and some¬
times, as I have heard, that which is found under the roots of uprooted
trees is rich and very perfect. I cannot, therefore, say that I have seen the
best, although I have seen many mines in Venice, Camia, and other
places. Most of these, however, are of copper with some silver. Among
others I once operated a mine in Mount Avanzo, where I belonged to a
company formed by certain gentlemen. Since I was entrusted with the
whole enterprise I took occasion to go and see other mines; and so in
order to become more expert, I passed twice through upper Germany in
order to see the ores which are in that country. [lOf] I tried to learn by
sending out for information, making observations myself, and by talking
with someone whom I knew to be experienced. In this way I came to a
sure knowledge that the mine which we were to excavate was good, for it
contained more than three and a halfounces for every hundred ofore; and
we would surely have made a good profit ifthe fortune ofthese times had
not stirred up a war between the Emperor Maximilian and the lords of
Venice.* Because of this it was not possible to live in the regions of
Friuli and Carnia, and we were obliged to abandon our enterprise and to
lose all our preparations. This war lasted such a long time that our com¬
pany was broken up; but, while I followed another path, I have always
followed this one in my mind, and when I had occasion to return to upper
Germany, I tried more than ever to proceed with this affair. I was at
Sbozzo, Bleiberg, Innsbruck, HaUe, and Rottenberg, and later I was in
many places in Italy. To conclude, most ores that I have seen and the best
containing the purest silver are those that are found in the region of
Vicenza in certain gray rocks, as I have told you.
Now 1 do not wish to omit telling you as a general warning that, if by
chance you should start to mine ores and should find marcasites and ore
mixed together, you should abandon the enterprise, for this means that
the ore is near the surface and there is little ofit.
Now I do not know nor can I say anything further about this ore of
silver, unless I should here demonstrate to you the method ofseparating it
* This war lasted from 1508 to 1511.
CHAPTER 3 COPPER ORE 49
from its earthiness and ofreducing it to its metal. But because I have in
mind to speak ofthat in detail in its proper place among smelting, I will
let it go here without saying anything further in passing.
THE THIRD CHAPTER
Concerning the Origin and Nature ofCopper and Its Ore. Every inteUigent and practical investigator of minerals says that
copper ore is found in various regions ofthe world and that among
others Italy is very rich in it. But very little is mined there, perhaps
because ofa cowardly Italian avarice which has the power to make us lazy
and indolent in carrying out those lofty and fine designs which should
reasonably make us proceed swiftly, or perhaps because we are not prone
to attempt extraordinary profit but only undertake those enterprises in
which we are certain of a return on our investment. The reason for this
might also be found in the meager possibility ofsuccess, which, since these
things are not easily attempted because they are enormous undertakings of
doubtful outcome, cools the spirit of men and in place of enthusiasm
introduces the fear ofloss, the fear ofhaving to sacrifice not only time but
also the work and money invested; then they think ofthe difficulty [ii] of
discovery, of the impossibility of full ownership, and of the necessity of
excavating the mineral marrow from the hardest bones ofthe mountains
with the brawn and efforts ofmen. To this is added the fear common to
many that in attempting such things they may be called fools by certain
ignorant and dissolute persons, and it seems better to them to be praised
for becoming rich through usury and by many other infamous and illicit
methods than to lay themselves open to the danger of censure from such
as these.
But there are those who deserve still greater censure, particularly princes
and all rich and powerful persons, and theirs is an even more useless
error than that ofthose who refrain for the above reasons. Ifthe occasion
and means present themselves for both attempting and continuing such a
profitable and laudable affair as mining ores and if they hesitate solely
because of cowardice or because they give ear to the hayings ofignorant
hounds, or if because oftheir own willfuhiess they wish to remain prison¬
ers of a detestable and ugly avarice, then this is their own loss.
50 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
Alas, how much more do they err when, in the effort to acquire riches,
men brave the deep and capricious waters ofthe sea, the force and great
contrariness of the winds, the continual unrest of body and soul and the
manifest perils to their Hves, and the unendurable discomforts ofheat and
cold, ofhunger and thirst, and ofso many other things that should terrify
both mind and eye ofevery reasonable and strong spirit! Besides this there
is the continual anxiety and fear offalling prey to the swift sails ofpirates,
infidels, and other such people; for this reason it often happens that ifthey
wish to escape with their lives or preserve their liberty they must throw
themselves bodily into the arms of the horrible waves of the monstrous
sea, which are often more cruel to them than their avid pursuers might
have been. In these waves they find themselves with no more safety than
their faith in the strength of a two-inch bit of wood, or often in less, in¬
deed in a single peg, or a httle caulking. Ifit happens that one ofthese fails
them, repenting too late of their temerity, they pay for their fraud and
sink deep into the sea with hfe and goods together, without hope of
escape in the great gullet and profundity ofthis impious monster.
Even ifthese things do not happen, these men stand ever in the path of
unrest, ignoring the weather and the seasons, taking no more notice of
night than ofday and no more ofprosperous winds than ofcontrary ones,
which always give hard battle in winter, besides the freezings which they
bring. In the summer, on the other hand, when the winds fail them, they
find themselves under the beating down ofsolar rays in such calms that
they struggle against the excessive heat and almost yield to it. All the above
things and many more that they see and experience every day do not dis¬
courage those who are goaded by avarice. Nor do they consider that
when their sails have brought them to the intended place, they find them¬
selves in unknown foreign lands, among people [lit'] who are more
bestial than human, whose language is not their language and whose ways
and nature and political customs are completely different from those they
are sensibly nourished with in our parts.
And having seen how they ignore so many riches here and abandon all
these singular blessings as ifthey were not sufficient for their appetites or
else were so unattainable that they could not possess them except in the
dangerous way mentioned above, I felt that I had to digress and speak as I
have in order to give vent in some measure to my feelings against these
men, particularly because one can almost say that these treasures I speak of
are almost by chance heaped up in their very chests. For this reason I can-
CHAPTER 3 COPPER ORE 51
not but denounce them when I see that the thought of distant riches has
prevented them from turning their eyes toward a wealth that is near by,
as ifforeign riches had a finer flavor than those oftheir own country or
than those acquired without so much effort and mortal danger.
In addition to these there are others who, it seems, while they prudently
avoid the said inconveniences and dangers ofnavigation commit an even
greater error, falling into shameful faults, giving themselves wholly to
thieving and defrauding and to all kinds ofviolence and every other evil
and detestable error, obeying neither law nor faith, recognizing neither
person nor time, and respecting a place only with an eye to filling up with
silver or gold their deep, nay, bottomless and insatiable chests ofgreed. Oh
how many are those who have made wealth a god, and for this reason
have no respect for the true God, nor for men, cheating even their nearest
relatives, despoiling hospitals and holy places, robbing temples of their
sacred things and likewise if they can their own fatherland of public
property. I know that some ofthese cheat not only others but even them¬
selves ofclothing and other conveniences as well as oftheir necessary daily
bread, knowing neither conscience, piety, nor righteousness, recognizing
neither permitted nor forbidden things; and often they care not if they
soil the generous and honorable name of their family, involving them¬
selves in affairs that even the meanest man should abhor in act as well as in
thought.
But how great, shall we say, is the number ofthose who are called mer¬
chants, who for love of acquisition give over their possessions to persons
whom they have never seen or known except from hearsay or through
letters; and as soon as these persons have the property in their possession
they gamble it away or spend it in debauchery or luxuries. But every
adversity that comes to these merchants is fitting punishment for having
committed so many mistakes in forsaking the natural, good, andjust way
of extracting from the earth as much fruit as can be found, granted that
Nature so hberally produces it for us and for our use; nor do these bUnd
and grossly ignorant men think how virtuous and laudable such works
are. For by mining such ore it might happen that in one day, even in a
single hour, without any danger or trouble to themselves, but only to
their hirelings, and without so many inconveniences, [12] annoying out¬
rages, or other things, they would become very wealthy and have gold
and silver in greater abundance than from shameful usury, dangerous
navigation, or any ofthe other unreasonable or pernicious occupations.
52 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
For this reason I say and conclude that the gifts ofsuch copious blessings
conceded by heaven should not be left to our descendants in future cen¬
turies; and those men wrong themselves, their fatherland, and the prov¬
ince where they were born in withholding the profitable and useful
tilings that would reward their efforts. They also wrong Nature, for the
things she has produced are as httle esteemed by them as ifshe had gener¬
ated nothing, or something only useless and vile; indeed one could say
that they wrong all living beings, both present and future, since they do
not avail themselves ofthe universal creation as we are bound to do.
For this we should denounce them and severely reprove them in the
same terms that farmers would deserve if, when the fruits ofthe earth are
ripe, instead of gathering them, they should leave them to rot and waste
in the fieldsjust as these men do. Surely they see, or could ifthey wished,
the great folly they commit, especially since they are so avid for riches;
and they should see their great mistake in not bending every effort toward
mining ores in which their every expense is returned to them, often twice
over, without peril ofshipwreck or danger ofso many other losses that
are met in that troublous pathway of seeking wealth. Besides this, is it
possible that they do not see that the harvest comes, not once a year like
that of the other fruits which laborious agriculture produces, but con¬
tinues throughout every season, in every month, indeed in every day and
every hour? They can often harvest in whatever quantity they desire, if
skill or patience or effort be continuous and sufficient to enable them to
arrive where the thing is actually found.
But leaving this digression (although I could say much more about it) I
wish to return in the direction ofour path, from which I strayed only for
important reasons. And now I tell you that copper mineral like the others
is engendered in the rocks of mountains, from an elemental earthy sub¬
stance that has little wateriness, together with the proper proportion of
the qualities of necessary substances nourished by the influence ofVenus,
with those productive and generative quahties which Nature gives. Be¬
cause these are neither pure nor subtle enough they are not capable of as
good an elemental mixture and decoction as are those of gold or silver.
Copper is judged by philosophers to be hot and dry in its innate nature
and in its generation its substance is burned up and inflamed to a con¬
siderable degree, from which arises the redness of its color. Because its
other substances in their impurity are not well united they cause it to be
imperfect. For this reason the practicing speculators call it in itself a sick
COPPER ORE CHAPTER 3
53
metal, foliated and earthy, and, for its defects, ignoble, particularly be¬
cause when it is worked it is converted into dross, and in the fire [i2v] it
calcines easily and melts. And they attribute its ductihty, which is contrary
to the nature ofvery earthy substances, to its great mineral unctuousness.
Putting aside these theoretical speculations I say to you that the ore
shows itself in various colors, and likewise it is engendered in various
kinds of rock, and with it Nature often produces silver and sometimes
lead. The sign that shows to the eye that the ore is not pure is its fumosi￾ties, for when it is not pure these are blue and yellow. The places where
such an ore is generated are recognized by the fractures in its rock. For the
place ofthe generation ofthis metal is more worn down and fragmented
than that of any other metal but gold, although that of quicksilver also
does the same thing. I believe that the reason for this lies in its burned sub¬
stance; for with its great heat it drives the humidity out ofthe parts ofthe
adjacent stone and, being fiery and driven by the humidity and coldness
ofthe waters below, it seeks to draw itself upwards in order to flee these
opposing natures and almost by force it enters wherever it goes, even into
the rocks. Thus it advances, thrusting itselfin and breaking the rock, as I
have said. When these things are seen they are manifest indication not
only that that mountain contains ore, but also that the ore is copper and
that it is abundant.
But because the eye cannot always penetrate into the interior, it is
necessary to have a true knowledge of the art of assaying. For this one
must excavate some ofthe ore that shows itselfin the open and assay it one
or more times with great care. Ifit is ofa violet color in a gray rock with a
few little green veins, or colored yellow, one may hope for a great profit,
for this indicates a great quantity. Several other ores ofthe same color are
also found, but not so dark that they seem black and these, hke the above,
are good and easy to reduce. Finally, of those that remain, that which is
found in a somewhat greenish hmestone and is of a violet color is the
purest and the best. But be advised that if, in this or other rock, you find it
of a dead color, it will be an ore oflittle substance.
In order that you may be more sure where such ore is to be found (in
addition to those signs which I have already indicated) I do not wish to
fail to tell you that to find it more easily you should search for stones lying
on the surface ofthe mountains in which certain shiny specks, like talc, are
apparent and which, besides having a certain greenish cast, have a metallic
taste and in the summer are very cold, in winter, warm; and often where
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
54
they have stood they make a bed of a certain thick viscous and green
putrefaction.
From these signs experienced men have not only the hope but almost
the certainty of finding copper ore in such places. After it is found and
mined in the said manner, prepared in the way that I shall tell you, and
smelted in great quantities, you will have complete satisfaction of your
wish. For even if the ore is not of great perfection. Nature compensates
with quantity, [13] provident and kindly Nature who abundantly pro¬
duces and offers it to us; and in order that it may be adapted to our needs
she makes it flexible and disposed to smelting. When it has been thus pre¬
pared it is convenient for making endless compositions for handiworks. It
is almost always the basis for all the works of the fraudulent alchemists,
indeed it is the very body of their anatomy, as mercury is to the philo¬
sophic alchemists. Copper is a metal that is very well known in aU coun¬
tries; it is worked with great facility and with calamine or tutty is changed
to a yellow color which often is such that against gold [it is confused] with
it. It calcines with powdered sulphur or is altered with salt; from red it
becomes white by mixing it with tin or arsenic or any other kind of
poison that you may melt with it. There are those who say that by certain
processes of their art, by means ofcements or other materials, they extract
some gold from it. It is true that it contains some, but I believe that there is
httle for I do not know of any elemental mixture in it similar to that of
gold. Yet if they do this, it is to be esteemed that much more highly
among the fair works ofGod and ofNature.
THE FOURTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Ore ofLead and Its Generation. I SHALL proceed in this chapter to tell you about lead. Because this
metal is overabundant in wateriness, and also because it has its other
substances in poor elemental mixture, it is highly impure. It is called
an imperfect, leprous, and little-fixed metal, which it clearly shows itself
to be because ofthe ease ofHquefying it and because it is easily converted
largely into a dross that is almost earthy and also because ofthe stain that
it leaves when it rubs against anything. Nevertheless, when we consider
its effects, we judge it to be a metal that we are greatly indebted to. Even
though Nature in creating us has put into our souls such a thirst and desire
CHAPTER 4 LEAD ORE 55
to possess gold and silver and precious gems in great quantities, we would
neither have these things nor know them ifwe did not have lead and we
would tire ourselves in the vain effort to possess them. For without the aid
oflead we would never have known how to extract gold and silver from
copper, nor how to lift from precious gems the earthy and rocky veil that
clouds and covers their beauty and clarity.*
In short, if Nature, most generous with her excellent things, had not
created this and given it to us as she has done, we could perhaps say that
we would have lacked all those things that we esteem so highly for their
beauty or rarity or perhaps for some precious and excellent virtue. There¬
fore we must consider it as a useful thing of value equal to those things
that we prize so greatly. For as I have said, it is both the cause and the
means of our possessing jewels and all the most perfect metals. [131']
With the certainty and favor of this we have the courage to penetrate
even within the hardest mountains and to seek lead in the harshest and
wildest regions and places.
And since in this, as in her other works. Nature always seeks to accom¬
modate men, she has generated it abundantly, with the result that there
are few mineral locations in which or near which this ore is not found,
almost as ifshe had offered it to us beforehand as an aid to our needs. For
the substance of ores that contain gold or silver could never be extracted
without it, because they are things that are invisible to our eyes and that,
as you see, are joined to these like the spirit to the bodies ofliving things,
as appears in the various elemental mixtures ofmetals that are useful one
to the other, that is, silver, gold, copper, lead, and perhaps iron. Often the
ores of all four metals are found fused and mixed together, and only by
means oflead can each one be separated from the others when one wishes
to save them all.
In addition to these useful effects, lead has power to serve men in many
other ways; for the doctors also make use ofit in many sicknesses. Women
in particular are greatly indebted to it, for, with art, it disposes to a certain
whiteness, which, giving them a mask, covers all their obvious and
natural darkness, and in this way deceives the simple sight of men by
making dark women white and hideous ones, ifnot beautiful, at least less
ugly.
* A reference to the use oflead laps for polishing gems and to the addition oflead to tin
for oxidation in making putty powder for polishing; possibly also to the use of fusible
metals as mountants.
56 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
But now, not to continue too long, I shall cease narrating all its par¬
ticular qualities and, returning to our path, teU you that the ore that pro¬
duces and generates this metal is found in various countries and in divers
rocks and soils. Some is found that has an admixture ofsilver, and another
ofsilver with gold. Such a mineral is commonly found in a spongy rock
called limestone [colomhino] of a white color similar to travertine, with
some black specks in it, and it is very hard to mine. It is also found in an¬
other kind ofstone that has a red color similar to rusty iron that has stood
in water. Furthermore, it is found in certain soils of ashy color, as in
Andalusia and Aggioaga. The best ofall that we know offrom experience
is that which is bom in the said white stone, especially when it is of a very
fine and clear grain, or that which is found in a certain kind ofsoil and is
purified merely by washing it. All ores ofthis metal, wherever they may
be, are easily mined, and, once mined, are easily cleansed of their super¬
ficial earthiness.
It is smelted with little art by means offire, either entirely alone or often
in the company of other ores either in order to save work and expense or
to dispose the others that are hard to easier smelting, or else to protect
them from the great burning of the fire so as to prevent the silver being
burned or carried away by the arsenic.
In order to smelt it when it is pure,* a square furnace is made, open on
top and as large and high as the worker wishes, of a shape similar to that
which is made for melting by draft of air. And when it is necessary [14]
to have a goodly quantity ofthe ore, a rectangle ofthree or four hraccia is
made, and about three-fourths of a hraccio or a little more above the level
of the ground, in place of the iron grating, I would make as many little
masonry arches as the enclosure can contain, placing them about two dita
apart. At the bottom I would make it on three sides like the inside ofthe
hd of a pot which by its slope acts as a channel; the other side, the front, I
would leave open for the entrance ofthe draft and the exit ofthe lead. I
would leave this open while the lead falls in melting so that because ofthe
channel-like shape of the bottom the lead can run down and reach a
large receptacle made at the back or at the side of the opening that I told
you was left for the draft, or for taking out hot coals or the earthy
parts of the ore when they fall. Thus this cleansed lead in another form
goes into the receptacle and is left in it to cool. Large cakes of the desired
* This method ofsmelting without roasting would, of course, only be suitable for pure
oxidized ores.
CHAPTER 4 LEAD ORE 57
weight are made from it. This is the common method used for extracting
lead from such ores, and it can be used for others as long as they are not
too sour.
In order that you may better understand the form that the furnace must
have, I have shown it here in a drawing as well as I could.* In this, when
you wish to use it, put a layer of wood above the httle arches, and then
sprinkle some charcoal on it, then a layer of ore, and so on with layers of
wood, coal, and ore, until the furnace is full to the top. Then light the fire,
letting it work gradually by itself The ore that is placed in it must be in
Httle pieces, or well crushed and washed ifyou wish or ifyou see that it is
necessary. Allowing it to be separated in this way, the lead will run out,
and aU the earth will remain dry on the arches, or it will fall among the
charcoal and ashes, useless and wretched ifit does not contain any other
metal. In this way, by adding new ore with wood and charcoal as the
layers gradually go down, it can be continuously smelted.
In case the ore has a stony nature or contains other kinds of ore so that
the said method does not fully suffice with it because ofits hardness, you
should take the ore and crush it well and wash it. Make a receptacle as
large as you wish and shaped like a cupeling hearth; after this has been
well compressed and pounded and finally dried out and made very hot
with burning charcoal, place in it a quantity of pure lead, and then with
wood and charcoal and the wind of a good pair of bellows make it melt
very easily. Then, when you see that it is very hot, put the ore on top of
the wood and charcoal so that it gradually falls down hot into the middle
ofthe bath and melts. Make a little outlet near by so that the lead may run
out as it melts, and keep the bath free ofslag with an iron tool.
In case this method should not serve you because of the strong ele¬
mental mixture of the ore or because of the burned quality of the rock,
and it should be necessary to use a stronger fire, [141^] pass it through the
blast furnace according to the method used for other metals. But if you
have to resort to this it will not be pure ore oflead, but a wild and harsh
material with some trace ofiron. Because you may not know the method
ofsuch smelting and may wish to know it, I teU you that you will find it
noted in this work in the course ofthe present book.
Also because I have told you that it is a good thing to smelt all ores of
lead with silver ore I tell you that with this wild kind this is especially
true, because it needs Httle more fire and it becomes pasty [i.e., forms a
* There is no such illustration in any edition.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
58
slag] with the other ore and both melt at the same time so that the silver is
better protected from the fire. There are evident reasons why these ores
act in this way, in addition to the fact ofour experience and ofhaving seen
it every day. For Nature has made a certain alliance of friendly union
between these metals and stones, by which the humidity oflead is joined
to the aridness ofsilver, and the heat to the cold. Thus they temper each
other and that which is hard becomes suitably soft and liquefiable and
issues from the torment ofthe fire more quickly than it would have done
by itself, so the silver is saved.
This lead is a metal that alloys with all the metals, but there are none to
which it isJoined, except tin, from which it caimot be separated. For this
reason ingenious artists have discovered not only the protection ofsilver
in smelting but also the method ofextracting silver from other metals and
of cleansing it from its every companion. The alchemists also make great
use of it in their work, sometimes calcining it alone, and sometimes ac¬
companied with tin although they then use the strong fires of a reverbera¬
tory furnace; yet it is often calcined with sulphur, common salt, or ar¬
senic.
The calculation oflead in a reverberatory furnace seems to me such a
fine and important thing that I cannot pass it by in silence. For it is found
in effect that the body ofthe metal increases in weight to 8 or perhaps 10
per hundred more than it was before it was calcined.* This is a remarkable
thing when we consider that the nature offire is to consume everything
with a diminution ofsubstance, and for this reason the quantity ofweight
ought to decrease, yet actually it is found to increase. After it has been in
the fire so long it seems reasonable that the contrary should happen, be¬
cause many ofits parts have been consumed as well perhaps as those ofthe
elemental fire. Deducing reasons for such an effect, it may be answered
that all heaviness tends to the centerf and the denser a body is the heavier
it is within its species. Since those watery and airy parts are removed by
* Biringuccio is one ofthe earliest to mention the increase in weight of a substance on
oxidation, although the converse (diminution of weight on reduction) was mentioned
by Pliny. The formation ofPbO theoretically corresponds to an increase in weight of 7.7
per cent, but the formation of small amounts of higher oxides would account for the
higher figure given by Biringuccio. The curiously inverted explanation ofthe function of
airy parts reminds one that phlogiston was later supposed to have negative weight in
order to explain these same facts.
f Vague expressions of the concept of gravitational force are to be found in works at
least as early as Ptolemy.
CHAPTER 5 TIN ORE 59
the fire from this composition oflead as from a poorly mixed metal, and
since all its natural porosity is closed (through which the air used to enter
that by its nature and power held it suspended under its influence with a
certain lightness), the lead, brought to this point, falls back into itselflike a
thing abandoned and hfeless. Thus it comes to retain more of its pon¬
derosity in the same way [15] that the body of a dead animal does, which
actually weighs much more than when aUve. For, as is evident, the
spirits that sustain life are released and, since it is not possible to under¬
stand how these can be anything but substances with the quaHties of air,
the body remains without the aid ofthat which made it lighter by lifting
it up toward the sky, and the heaviest part of the element has its natural
force increased and is drawn toward the center. Thus the above difficulty
is resolved by this explanation.
THE FIFTH CHAPTER
Concerning Tin and Its Ore. WHOEVER has occasion to judge tin in its whiteness from the
testimony of his eyes alone would surely beheve it to be
purest silver, or something that comes very near to it in nature.
This is even more so when, on handling, it is found to be harder than
lead, to which it can be said to have a greater and closer resemblance. But
whoever has actual experience with tin knows that none of the other
metals is less similar to it than silver. For silver mixes with every metal, as
does gold; and they unite together, and the others do likewise; and except
for their color they change their natures but Httle. But this metal tin,
wherever it is found, acts like a powerful poison which envenoms and
corrupts the others; and it does this not only with large quantities but also
with every small amount; indeed just the trace remaining where it has
been melted is enough to embrittle silver and gold as well as iron and
copper. The greater the quantity ofit in these, the greater are its effects.
Speculators ofnatural causes say that this fact arises from its great wateri¬
ness, which is very subtle and poorly decocted and almost hke that of
quicksilver. This wateriness, then, by means of its subtlety which joins
itself with metals, imposes itself into that unctuous and viscous material
which renders them flexible, and thus deprives them of their toughness
6o PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
and corrupts them, excepting lead, in such a way that it almost converts
them into another nature. Although tin alters lead it does not apparently
act on it so much, since both have almost an equal and proportioned
similarity of nature. For this reason tin is called “white lead” by the
alchemists.
As you are aware, tin is a very well known metal because it serves to
make many objects for human use. For wherever it is generated it is found
in large quantities and it is easily worked since it melts with any kind of
fire and with little effort. This metal, either pure or when mixed with
lead, stands up well under the hammer, so that, ifdesired, it can be spread
out thinner than paper. Vessels for eating and those for preserving liquids
are commonly made from it by casting. Although it possesses consider¬
able metallic odor, [151^] still it does not leave enough in whatever is
placed in it to be detected either by smell or taste after it has been stirred
That metal is known to be purer that shows its whiteness more, or if
when it is broken it shows itself granular like steel inside, or ifwhen some
thin part ofit is bent or squeezed by the teeth it gives its natural cracking
noise, like that which water makes when it is frozen by cold.
Although I have never seen its ore, for apparently it is engendered in
few places, still, according to what I have heard from experienced men,
the best and the most abundant that is found in the provinces of Europe
is that which is mined in England; and I have also heard that it is found
in certain places in Flanders, in Bohemia, and in the Duchy of Bavaria,
but I am not able to hst these exactly because of the strangeness of the
names and places, though this matters little. For you it is enough to
know that its ore is generated in the same way as the others in the most
rugged mountains in a certain white rock. They also say that it is in sev¬
eral other rocks that are somewhat yellow and in others of a dark gray
color. They also say that it is found in another rock that is all spongy and
almost like that in which lead is generated but its stone is more soft and all
full ofred and gray veins. I understand that it is extracted from the earthi¬
ness ofits ore in the same way that lead is, that is, in an open furnace.
As I told you above, this is a metal whose nature corrupts other metals
in which it is incorporated, so that whoever puts even one part ofit to one
hundred parts of copper, iron, silver, or gold, changes their color and
alters their tractable sweetness. What others say, that it produces no sound
itself, is also true, but by hardening other metals it makes them sonorous,
CHAPTER 6 IRON ORE 6i
just as if it puts the spirit there and vitahzes the substances. Thus by the
mixture oftwo flexible bodies there comes the creation of a third that is
neither one nor the other, indeed it is entirely different, brittle and much
harder than either one ofthem was before. This happens, perhaps, because
the parts ofthe tin break the parts ofthe copper and destroy their tough¬
ness. Because ofthe diversity ofthe natures ofthe metals concerned, the
parts of the tin do not unite with each other as well as they were previ¬
ously united, and the same thing happens to the parts ofthe copper when
its moisture is multiphed by that ofthe other, or its dryness by the cold¬
ness ofthe other.
The whiteness that tin introduces into metals results from its spreading
out in this case as a watery or very subtle thing, overcoming the redness of
the copper or the yellowness ofthe gold and extinguishing it, making the
metal very white, from red or yellow, in such a way that it shows even
more whiteness than the tin itself previously showed. But although it
shows itself white, it does not seem to me that it really is so, as I beheve
that it shows a greater whiteness just because it has greater shininess and
brighmess and these qualities are caused by the heightened polish that the
greater hardness can receive. The hardness that the third body acquires
arises because its temper is lost and the unctuous and viscous quality [i6]
is broken that gives toughness to metals and makes them tractable and
malleable for the work of artisans. These are the reasons that, in my
opinion, account for such effects.
THE SIXTH CHAPTER
Concerning Iron Ore and Its Nature. Nature produces iron ore abundantly in many regions of the
world, especially in Italy where not only is there a great
abundance of it but also there are various kinds. In these our
Tuscan parts it is a very familiar thing, since we are situated close to the
island ofElba which is so overflowing and rich in this ore that it surpasses
every other place where it is found. Thus not only do the regions of
Tuscany share its great quantity because oftheir proximity, but more than
two-thirds ofItaly as well as Sicily and Corsica are supphed, and perhaps
some more distant place. In addition, this ore is of such perfection that it
62 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
is no doubt a very good reason why we do not take the trouble to mine in
many places on the mainland ofItaly, where a similar ore is clearly indi¬
cated by the signs and by the assays that have been made which show that
whoever should mine would fmd great quantities ofit. But seeing the ex¬
cellency ofthis Elban ore and the ease with which it is acquired, in addi¬
tion to the certain return on the investment in proportion to what is
expected from the desired thing, the attempt to mine it in other places
is abandoned.
Among the other words ofpraise, I do not wish to omit telling you of a
marvelous tiling about this Elban ore. For, though it has been mined in
such quantities for so many centuries, and is still mined even today so that
not only the mountains but even two islands like that one should have
been leveled, yet nevertheless it is still mined today and is ofbetter quality
than ever before. Thus it is the opinion ofmany that within a certain time
the ore is regenerated anew in that soil which has already been mined. If,
indeed, this were true, it would be a great thing and would demonstrate a
great provision ofNature or a great power ofthe heavens.
I have not yet told you that this ore is ofsuch a nature that, in order to
extract the iron from it and then to reduce it to purity, it is not subjected
to the force of violent fires or many devices and extraordinary efforts as
are the others. By merely placing it on a forge in front of the tuyere
where the blast issues, a very soft and malleable iron can be extracted with
an ordinary smelting fire. From this any kind of craftsman’s work can be
made just as ifit were silver or some other very malleable metal. In these
effects it clearly shows its great purity and that it contains no trace of
copper* or admixture of any other metal harmful to its virtuous quality.
Whence it happens that this ore does not need the powerful fires of great
furnaces [i6v] in order to purify it, as is usual for many other ores (par¬
ticularly for those that are in the Brescian territory in Valcamonica in
Italy), but a simple forge is sufficient, together with a pair of bellows not
much larger than ordinary ones. After the ore has been broken in little
nutlike pieces it is arranged on the said place in a heap and around this a
circular enclosure is made of the larger pieces of ore or of other dead
rocks, put there only in order to hold the charcoal and fire close together.
The amount that it is wished to reduce is well covered with charcoal and
* The erroneous idea that small amounts ofcopper are harmful to iron is mentioned by
Pliny {Natural History, Book XXXIV, para. 143) and persisted for nearly two thousand
years.
CHAPTER 6 IRON ORE 63
then an arrangement of bellows connected with a water wheel which
moves them is caused to blow. With a fire of only eight or ten hours’
duration the ore is smelted and cleansed of the earthiness which it con¬
tains; thus the iron remains all pure in a waxlike mass. The said rocks are
removed from around it and it is removed from the forge while still hot.
It is broken in pieces with mallets by hand, and then each piece is reheated,
carried to the forge-hammer machine, and made into blooms.*This proc¬
ess is done in every works twice a week and is called il far dela cola.'f
When it is finished, the said blooms ofthe iron thus extracted are taken
again and placed on the same forge, and well reheated. When hot they
are cut up by the said forge hammer and extended into the form of a bar,
squares, or any other desired form.
When this work has been brought to its conclusion, the ore will be found
to have lost not more than 40 or 45 per cent, the remainder being purest
iron. This occurs with no other iron ore, because there are few that are
not mixed with other ores, or that are not wild and sour in their own
nature, or that do not need to pass through large furnaces with strong and
powerful fires, consuming great quantities of charcoal and much labor,
for their wildness cannot otherwise be tamed since it is caused by bad
elemental mixture or traces ofother metals ofwhich they are often so full
that they can scarcely be liberated. I saw this in Siena while I was still a
young man, in the valley ofBoccheggiano where many plants for making
iron were constructed by the magnificent Pandolfo P.J Since I was in
charge ofthem, I took some ofthe iron ores which were found near there
as well as that ofElba, and I came to be experienced in both.
But I have told you enough of this Elban ore. Now I shall tell you
what I have learned about this other kind which is very similar to that of
Bischaia, Brescia, and Buti. First (supposing that you have found the ore
and have mined a goodly amount and have roasted, sorted, well re-sorted,
and washed it) you must have one or more furnaces of the type called
large blast furnaces which can hold great quantities ofcharcoal and which
are constructed on the inside like the figure I shall show you drawn here.
[17] Near these is a large pair ofbellows, very close to the wall ofthe fur-
* masselli.
f i.e., making a heat, or a “running down.”
I Pandolfo Petrucci, the tyrant who virtually controlled Siena after an armed seizure of
power in 1487. Under his ruthless dictatorship the city remained superficially tranquil and
trade flourished. He died in 1512.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
64
nace, like a great pair of wings. These are usually six or eight braccia in
height and they are set in motion by a strong water wheel to which they
are connected so that they have a very large extension for inflation. With
their powerful blast, which enters the furnace by means of a tube about
two and a halfbraccia from the bottom, the ore is smelted after the furnace
has been filled up with charcoal. Depending on the kind, some ores are
smelted once and others twice before they are disposed to become iron
Figure 3. Blast furnace for smelting refractory iron ores.
good enough to give to the forge to be drawn out by the forge hammer.
In spite of all this, it often happens that, however much care the masters
have taken, it has not been possible to bring the metal to such softness that
it can be worked. This is due to the malignity ofits companions, which
melt with it and become inseparable from it. Yet ifthere is anything that
can aid it to separate well this is the best for most easily bringing it to per¬
fection.
This ore is found in many different kinds and is purified in many ways
depending on its species and on the knowledge and ability ofthe masters,
among whom there is a great difference, for one extracts from the same
ore a greater quantity and a softer and more malleable metal than another.
There is also a very great difference apparent in the types of charcoal, for
experience shows that one kind of wood works better than another.
There is no doubt but that the charcoal of soft wood makes a soft and
tough iron but coarse wood makes it hard, strong, and less tough.
But whoever wishes to make the iron good and soft by virtue of the
ore itself, in addition to the method and the charcoal, must first provide
CHAPTER 6 IRON ORE 65
an experienced and intelligent sorter who will carefully sort the pure from
the impure and will separate them according to the indications of their
appearance and by breaking them. Then he will roast them in an open
furnace and, thus roasted, he will put them in an open place so that the
rains will wet and the sun will dry them out. Having left them thus for
some time, he must look them over again piece by piece before they are
brought to the furnace [i 71^] in order to see whether some trace ofanother
metal has appeared. Thus by roasting and reroasting them, making them
evaporate well before they are smelted, a good iron is obtained that is soft
and malleable. But if, after using all possible care, it happens that the ore
does not produce soft iron because ofits particular nature, but is instead
still hard, then it is good for making steel; indeed it is much better than
soft iron. For this reason some call this the ore ofsteel and not ofiron, but
in my opinion this is an error because there is not enough difference be¬
tween steel and iron to distinguish an additional ore, nor as far as I know
has this been attributed to it by these speculators. I think that it can well be
called ore of an iron which is more disposed to make steel than is soft
iron, * as I shall tell you in detail in its own place.
Now, as you have seen, I have given you in this discourse a knowledge
ofthe differences between iron ores and ofthe methods that are generally
used for purifying them; without these processes they would not bear the
hammer nor could they be held together or welded in making objects. I
shall now tell you what its nature is and where and how it is found, but its
usefulness to men you will fmd noted in the Ninth Book ofthis volume.
Now wishing to tell you where this ore is naturally found I say briefly
that it is found in the most rugged mountains. The metal is called by the
alchemists more ignoble than any ofthe others because it is made ofa very
earthy, coarse, and strong substance. For this reason it happens that, be¬
cause ofits great dryness, it is more apt to soften in the fire than to melt.
Because of its poor elemental mixture and great porosity it easily pro¬
duces rust, and when it is worked it consumes itself by becoming dross.
For the same reason it becomes brittle and intractable ifit is touched by
melted tin, because this easily penetrates with the subtlety ofits spirits and
alters it, changing its nature.
* Is it likely that certain ores will give a sponge iron in a physical condition more able
than others to absorb carbon? Although Biringuccio mentions cast iron several times and
considers it to be a “corrupted” iron, he nowhere indicates that he suspected the im¬
portance ofmelting in contact with fuel to give hard or fusible iron.
66 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
Iron ore appears in many kinds, as I told you above. Good ore must be
clear, heavy, and firm ofgrain, free from earth, stone, and all traces ofany
other kind ofmetal. The color of good* ores is black and those that have
the color of lodestone are worth very little, because almost aU of them
contain a trace of copper. Those that are best known to me are of four
kinds. The first is that clear kind ofwhich I have spoken, which is heavy
and perfect. The next is a shining one of fine grain that crumbles very
easily and is not very good. That ofblack color with coarse grain is worth
httle because it almost always has with it a trace of copper or some other
metal. The fourth is black with a fine grain and is more or less good de¬
pending on the stone in which it is found.
As I told you before, those that have a trace, if not too great, of other
metals can be purified by the use oflong and powerful fires. Since they are
corrupt materials and are almost inseparable from each other except by
these means, it is not possible to bring them to a soft perfection. Because
they melt easily they are used to make cannon balls and other cast objects;
these are more or less brittle as the materials are more or less corrupted by
that trace [ofimpurity].
[i8] This ore is generated, as is seen, in every kind ofsoil and in those
mountains where an abundance of very perfect water springs forth and
where the air is good. It is often generated in a white rock similar to
marble; ifit is smelted while Joined with this it rarely gives soft iron. Iron
ore is also found by itselfscattered within a certain red earth, but it is very
brittle and has with it some black spots and yellow shining specks. A
similar ore is also found in a certain yellow earth that is somewhat soft like
mud, but I advise you to lose no time with this because it is not pure. You
will have more certain evidence of this when you see near to it some
stones colored green or blue or when you break it and find in it little
yellow grains like buttons or black ones like charcoal.
There is one more experiment that can be made in order to recognize its
purity. It is this: The said ore is placed in a strong lye, then after it is taken
out and put on a well-burning fire it develops the color ofthe fumosities
which [naturally] issue from it.]’ Also, after it has stood in the said lye for a
long time, one blows on it very gently with a small bellows or other tube
* bruna. Mieli proposes huona, which we have followed.
t This seems to be the first description to appear in print ofthe use offlame color to
identify elements. It is mentioned, however, in the Mittefalterliche Hausbuch MS. of 1480.
STEEL MAKING CHAPTER 7 67
and by means ofthe bubbles that form, its evilness is discerned in the dif¬
ferent colors of copper that appear there.
The sign by which you can surely teU where there is good iron is the
presence of bole and another earth that is also red, soft, and fat and that
does not make any crackling noise when it is squeezed by the teeth.
According to what practical men say, a very perfect ore is generated in
this, but it does not appear in veins. To tell you what kind is most com¬
monly found, I also add that the greatest quantity is ofthat nature which
has a rusty color and which is not very good. I have seen this and another
black kind in great quantities in the region of Siena in the valley of
Boccheggiano and in other places.
I do not wish to speak here in more detail concerning the discovery of
these ores, or to make further distinctions between them, because I think
that I have said enough for our purpose. Furthermore, they are very well￾known facts and every httle bit ofexperience which you have will increase
your wisdom as you need it. I have also said enough about their smelting.
Indeed I told you about it before I showed how the ore is found, and also
intend to demonstrate it to you better in the discussion on smelting, with
the other metals.
THE SEVENTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Method ofMaking Steel.
A LTHOUGH it might seem more fitting to discuss this subject in the
Ninth Book in connection with the smelting of iron where I had
.A jL thought to treat ofit in detail, this process ofmaking steel appears
to be almost a branch ofthe above chapter on iron itself; hence I did not
wish to separate these two so far that they might seem to be [iSy] dif¬
ferent things. Therefore I wish to write ofit here and to tell you that steel
is nothing other than iron, well purified by means ofart and given a more
perfect elemental mixture and quality by the great decoction of the fire
than it had before. By the attraction of some suitable substances in the
things that are added to it, its natural dryness is mollified by a certain
amount of moisture and it becomes whiter and more dense so that it
seems almost to have been removed from its original nature. Finally,
when its pores have been well dilated and softened by the strong fire and
the heat has been driven out ofthem by the violence ofthe coldness ofthe
68 PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
water, these pores shrink and it is converted into a hard material which,
because ofthe hardness, is brittle.
This steel* can be made from any kind ofiron ore or prepared iron. It
is indeed true that it is better when made from one kind than from an¬
other and with one kind of charcoal than with another; it is also made
better according to the understanding ofthe masters. Yet the best iron to
use for making good steel is that which by nature is free from corruption
of other metals and hence is more disposed to melt and has a somewhat
greater hardness than the other. Crushed marble or other rocks readily
fusible in smelting are placed with this iron; these purify the iron and
almost have the power to take from it its ferruginous nature, to close its
porosity, and to make it dense and without laminations.
Now in short, when the masters wish to do this work they take iron
that has been passed through the furnace or obtained in some other way,
and break into little pieces the quantity that they wish to convert into
steel. Then they place in front of the tuyere of the forge a round recep¬
tacle, half a hraccio or more in diameter, made of one-third of clay and
two-thirds of charcoal dust, well pounded together with a sledge ham¬
mer, well mixed, and then moistened with as much water as will make the
mass hold together when it is pressed in the hand. And when this recep¬
tacle has been made like a cupeling hearth but deeper, the tuyere is
attached to the middle so that its nose is somewhat inclined downwards in
order that the blast may strike in the middle ofthe receptacle. Then all the
empty space is filled with charcoal and around it is made a circle ofstones
or other soft rocks which hold up the broken iron and the charcoal that is
also placed on top; thus it is covered and a heap of charcoal made. Then
when the masters see that all is afire and well heated, especially the recep¬
tacle, they begin to work the bellows more and to add some ofthat iron in
small pieces mixed with sahne marble,f crushed slag, or other fusible and
nonearthy stones. Melting it with such a composition they fill up the
receptacle little by little as far as desired.
* The process consists ofimmersing masses ofwrought iron in a bath ofmolten cast iron.
Althougli Biringuccio says that both the bloom and the bath are ofthe same iron, that for
the bath is undoubtedly carburized by the excess of charcoal mixed with it for melting.
Agricola [De re-metallica, p. 342) copies this description almost word for word and adds
an illustration showing steel bars being hammered and quenched. Unfortunately the
hearth ofthe furnace is not shown and it is possible that it is just a forging operation that
is depicted, not the steel-making process itself.
•j" marmo saligno.
CHAPTER 7 STEEL MAKING 69
Having previously made under the forge hammer* three or four
blooms weighing thirty to forty pounds, each ofthe same iron, they put
these while hot into this bath ofmolten iron. This bath is called “the art of
iron”-}- by the masters ofthis art. They keep it in this melted material with
a hot fire for four or six hours, often stirring it up with a stick as cooks
stir food. [19] Thus they keep it and turn it again and again so that all that
sohd iron may take into its pores those subtle substances that are found
in the melted iron, by whose virtue the coarse substances that are in the
bloom are consumed and expanded, and all of them become soft and
pasty. When the masters observe this theyjudge that that subtle virtue has
penetrated fully within; and they make sure of it by testing, taking out
one ofthe masses and bringing it under a forge hammer to beat it out, and
then, throwing it into the water while it is as hot as possible, they temperf
it; and when it has been tempered they break it and look to see whether
every httle part has changed its nature and is entirely free inside from
every layer ofiron. When they find that it has arrived at the desired point
of perfection they take out the lumps with a large pair oftongs or by the
ends left on them and they cut each one in six or eight small pieces. Then
they return them to the same bath to heat again and they add some more
crushed marble and iron for melting in order to refresh and enlarge the
bath and also to replace what the fire has consumed. Furthermore, by
dipping that which is to become steel in this bath, it is better refined.
Thus at last, when these pieces are very hot, they are taken out piece by
piece with a pair oftongs, carried to be drawn out under the forge ham¬
mer, and made into bars as you see. After this, while they are still very hot
and almost of a white color because ofthe heat, in order that the heat may
be quickly quenched they are suddenly thrown into a current of water
that is as cold as possible, ofwhich a reservoir has been made.
In this way the steel takes on that hardness which is commonly called
temper; and thus it is transformed into a material that scarcely resembles
what it was before it was tempered. For then it resembled only a lump of
lead or wax, and in this way it is made so hard that it surpasses almost
every other hard thing. It also becomes very white, much more so than is
* forge hammer = maglio.
larte diferro. Mieli suggests latte difcrro, “milk ofiron.”
J The word “tempering” refers to the quenching operation, and not, as now, to re¬
heating after a drastic quench. It produced a finely tempered product, however, for the
quenching operation was controlled by intermittent, slow, or partial immersion to give
the desired hardness directly. See also note on page 371.
BOOK I 70 PIROTECHNIA
the nature of the iron in it; indeed it is almost like silver. The kind that
has a white, very fme, and fixed grain is the best. The kinds I have heard of
that are highly praised are that of Flanders and, in Italy, that of Valca￾monica in the Brescian district. Outside Christendom the Damascan is
praised and the Chormanian, the Azziminan, and that ofthe Agiambans.
I do not know how those people obtain it or whether they make it, al¬
though I was told that they have no other steel than ours. They say that
they file it, knead it with a certain meal, make little cakes of it, and feed
these to geese. They collect the dung of these geese when they wish,
shrink it with fire, and convert it into steel. I do not much believe this, but
I think that whatever they do is by virtue of the tempering, if not by
virtue ofthe iron itself.
[191^] THE EIGHTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Method ofMaking Brass. Having told you about steel in the previous chapter, it seems to
me necessary to speak here of brass for the same reason, for it
bears the same relation to copper that steel does to iron. It is the
opinion of some concerning both of these that they are true minerals
because Pliny in his Natural History calls it aurichalcum and says that it has
its own ore; he does not say, however, where it is found, and I have not
heard from anyone else that it has been found anywhere, and, surely, ifit
had been found when he wrote, it would also be found today.
Since I have no knowledge other than that gained through my own
eyes, I teU you as a certainty thatjust as steel is iron converted by art into
almost another kind ofmetal, so also brass is copper given a yellow color
by art. Surely it was a splendid discovery, for which we must praise the
alchemists,* although perhaps whoever discovered it was deceived,
thinking that he had made gold from copper.
Now, in short, this work requires infinite labor, and is carried out in
various places, for instance, in Flanders, Cologne, Paris, and in many
other countries, and also in the city ofMilan in Italy, where I have seen a
* The manufacture of brass antedated alchemy as Biringuccio knew it, for it is one of
the oldest alloys. Objects containing 23 per cent zinc have been found in archeological
sites dated at least as early as 1000 B.c. although the alloy was not in common use until
Roman times. BothPliny and Dioscorides obliquely mention its manufacture, and describe
several types of zinc oxide collected from the upper parts of brass-making furnaces. The
CHAPTER 8 BRASS MAKING 71
great quantity of it worked and colored. It is colored in this way: The
masters whom I saw had made in a large room a furnace, much longer
than it was wide, and built with a certain kind ofstone that by its nature
resisted continued firing without melting and burning up. Where the fire
entered the furnace it was almost entirely open. The body ofthe furnace
was halfor more underground; the vault was low; at the top and bottom
there were everywhere Httle airholes; and above in the vault there were
two square openings through which the crucibles containing the copper
to be colored could be put in and removed. These were then closed with
first competent account ofthe process is by Theophilus (about 1100 a.d.) who describes
all essential steps, and the next is this of our own author.
The old process of brass making consisted of heating calamine (zinc carbonate, often
roasted to the oxide) with charcoal and copper. The copper absorbed the zinc vapor as
soon as it was formed and so permitted the reaction to proceed nearly to completion at a
temperature at which the equilibrium pressure of zinc vapor from a mixture of calamine
and charcoal alone would be far below atmospheric. Metallic zinc was not definitely
recognized in Europe until the sixteenth century and not commercially produced until
early in the eighteenth, although it was itnported from the East in considerable quantities
and was also obtained as an accidental condensate in the cooler parts of blast furnaces
smelting lead ores containing zinc. The calamine process for making brass persisted long
after zinc became available in quantity; indeed Percy in his Metallurgy (1861 edition)
described in detail a furnace that had been operating only a few years previously.
Glauber [De Prosperitatc Germanias, Amsterdam, 1656) seems to be the first to describe
alloys of copper with metallic zinc and to recognize zinc as the metallic base of calamine.
Prince Rupert, with whom Glauber was associated for a time, made extensive use of an
alloy of calamine brass with metallic zinc, thus obtaining a harder alloy than could be
obtained with calamine alone, without the expense that would be involved by the use of
all metallic zinc. The alloys were studied in detail by Geoffroy in 1725 [Mem. Acad.
Royale des Sciences, Paris, 1725, pp. 57-66). By examining the fracture under a micro¬
scope, he distinguished yellow, reddish, and wliite constituents which are none other than
our alpha, beta, and gamma phases!
The first description ofbrass making in the English language was by Dr. Merrett in the
notes to his translation ofNeri, The Art ofGlass (London, 1662). This is the best descrip¬
tion prior to that ofGalon (1764) and Diderot [Encyclope'die, Paris, 1751-72) but has been
entirely overlooked by students ofthe history of brass.
Biringuccio refers to the action ofcalamine as one of “coloring” copper into brass. His
actual word is tegnere, which perhaps would more accurately be translated as dyed or tinc¬
tured. The word was sometimes used in alchemical literature for transmutation. Hopkins
points out [Alchemy, Child of Greek Philosophy, New York, 1934) that such phraseology
goes back to the time when metal coloring and dyeing were practiced by the Egyptians
as related decorative arts, and were regarded as being of much the same nature. Hopkins
deals at some length with superficial metal coloring or patination by sulphide baths and
the like, but does not refer to the production of brass. This, solid and yellow, was a
veritable triumph for the dyer and one which undoubtedly played a great part in con¬
vincing alchemists that their goal was true.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
72
little fitted clay shutters. The crucibles were made of Valencia clay, or
they were brought ready-made from Vienna; they were very large and I
believe that those which I saw were about two-thirds of a pound,* and I
understand they had a capacity offifty or sixty pounds ofmetal.
For this process they placed in each one of the vessels twenty-five
pounds ofGerman rosette copper broken in pieces, and they filled up the
rest to witliin two dita ofthe rim with a powder of a mineral earth, yel¬
lowish in color and very heavy, that they called calamine.J The rest ofthe
empty space in the crucible they [20] filled with powdered glass. Then
they put the crucibles in the vault through the above-mentioned openings
and arranged them in pairs on the bed at the bottom. Then they apphed a
melting fire for twenty-four hours and after this time they found the
material entirely fused, and the copper, which was red before, had become
a smooth and lovely yellow, almost like 24-carat gold in color.
Later I saw in the same shop several apprentices and masters working at
this, some ofwhom were hammering the said brass to make tinsel, some
were laminating it to make tips for laces, some were filing it into tailor’s
thimbles, some were making buckles and other similar objects by casting,
and there were some who were working it with the hammer into little
bells, spoons, and basins, and others were turning it into candlesticks or
other vessels. In brief, some made one thing and some another, so that
whoever entered that shop and saw the activity ofso many persons would,
I think, believe as I did that he had entered an Inferno, nay, on the con¬
trary, a Paradise, where there was a mirror in which sparkled all the
beauty of genius and the power of art. Taking thought of these things
with the greatest pleasure, there was not a day while I was in Milan that I
did not go there and stay an hour or more. In that place I turned my eyes
nowhere but I saw some ingenious novelty and beauty of craftsmanship,
and thinking ofthe arrangement and the greamess ofthe new things that
were shown to me, I was sometimes stupefied.
Among other things I saw a kind of workman whose method v/as
* Sic; braccio?
•}• rame peloso, the term used for the crusts of copper removed from the bath ofrefined
metal as it sohdified. (See p. 172.) Peloso means hairy or shaggy as apphed to an animal
hide, and was extended to these rough-surfaced crusts for obvious reasons.
t Biringuccio’s description is partly incorrect, for in order to absorb the zinc vapor
effectively the copper should be intermixed with the calamine or placed on top ofit, not
underneath. Moreover, the calamine would have to be mixed with powdered charcoal in
order to reduce it, and most calamine would need roasting before being used.
CHAPTER 8 BRASS MAKING 73
entirely new to me. These were eight masters near others in a room who
did nothing but mould in lute and form an infinite number of moulds
ofall those little objects ofeveryday usewhich can be made from brass by
casting. They made these in such a fine way that I cannot fail to tell you
about it. These masters took the number of patterns of all the things that
they had decided to mould, that is, harness buckles, cups, belt buckles, all
kinds of chain links, bells, thimbles, window fastenings, and other similar
things. On one day they made all of one kind and the next day all of
another, and thus they proceeded, changing the pattern every day; and
having finished one that they had to mould, they began again at the be¬
ginning with another, continuing always with this easy method and
process of moulding to accomplish much work.
They took a large quantity oflute mixed with cloth chppings or cane
seed and, when they had beaten [201^] the quantity they wished to use
until it was somewhat hard, they spread it out about halfa dito thick or less
on a little board which was a palmo in length and somewhat wider than
the patterns. After having spread it out well, they dusted it with fine
charcoal, and in it they moulded their patterns all attached to the gate,
with vents, openings, and all the parts which are needed to make a com¬
plete mould. Some ofthese patterns were oftin and some of brass, accu¬
rately made, filed, and well finished, for ifonce the mould was well made
the objects had to come out the same way. Each ofthese masters had also
near him a small square oven ofsheet iron. This was lined with bricks or
covered with clay and had a httle grate underneath and an open mouth the
length ofthe oven. When a little charcoal and fire was put inside on top of
the grate it heated the oven and kept it hot. Then they put the fresh half
mould that they had just made to dry above the opening where there was
a little grid. While it was drying they made another, and in the same
manner when it was made they put it near to the first one, and so they
continued up to six or eight pieces. Then they again took up the first one
(which had had sufficient heat and time to become dry or nearly so) and
on top of this they made the other companion, and on top of this com¬
panion they moulded other patterns on the outside.* They did the same
*The finished mould was like a multideckcd sandwich, with patterns between each two
layers. The lute or clay moulding composition would be hard when baked and would
need no external support except wire binding. If each built-up pattern contained 60
pieces, a single mould of 20 sections would contain 1,200 small castings—a good example
of quantity production before the macliine age.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I
74
with all the others and then beginning again from the first one they con¬
tinued on to all the others in succession, so that when the moulds were
finished and were drying one on top of the other they were altogether
half a hracdo or more in height and about half a palmo wide, or as wide as
a board or the particular pattern, for no useless space should be left around
them. After these were finished and well dried in an oven like those where
bread is baked, they opened them again, layer by layer, and took out the
patterns. These gave twenty or more pieces to each mould, resulting in a
great number, for some patterns contained as many as fifty or sixty
pieces. Finally, after having closed the moulds again and sealed them up,
and after having repaired or retouched the gates or any other points
where it was necessary, and having given them a wash offine ashes and
water, they put the moulds together again and returned them exactly to
their original position, then they bound them very well with iron wires
and sealed them with the same lute. Then they took sixteen or twenty of
these moulds and, standing them up on the ground all together, they made
a circle ofrocks around them and covering all the moulds with charcoal
they baked them again. After having baked and arranged them well and
having made in each part of the mould a gate which would convey the
metal to the gates of all the other moulds, they took them to the furnace
where the copper was colored. [21] When they took one or two ofthose
crucibles from the furnace they filled the mass of the moulds with that
well-melted, yellow-colored copper. They did this singly, or in pairs, or
several at a time, according to the number of moulds, filling aU the
moulds made by the masters whom I have described above. They did
this day and night as occasioned by the colored well-disposed material, or
depending on the number ofmoulds ready.
Pondering on this I thought to myselfthat this shop alone was sufficient
to furnish not only Milan but also the whole ofItaly, and surely it seemed
to me a splendid and fine undertaking for a single merchant. I thought
that he should take great pains to keep ahve all the fine undertakings that
I saw in that place and continue them and surely it pleased me to see so
many things being moulded continuously, and continuously being cast. I
beheve that no similar work is done in Flanders or in other places in
Germany where they make candlesticks, cups, and many other things as
they do. Many in those parts are not as advanced as we are.
I have decided to tell you in its proper place among the semiminerals
about the earth that colors copper into brass by its pecuhar properties.
CHAPTER 8 BRASS MAKING 75
Here I tell you only that I believe—indeed I know for a certainty—that in
every place where it is found or can be easily procured it would be pos¬
sible, as elsewhere, to do the same work ofcoloring copper into brass fol¬
lowing the procedure which I have described. I do not know that this
earth serves any other purpose than coloring copper, because the mineral
matter is of bad elemental mixture and poorly fixed. Only with copper
does it melt and become incorporated, because ofits peculiar and occult
suitability; and not only does it color copper another color, but it in¬
creases its volume so much that the workman covers the cost ofthe cop¬
per and the expense ofcoloring it, while with every other metal it evapo¬
rates and becomes ashes by itself in the fire. If you melt with the copper
more than its nature can absorb it makes it more brittle, in addition to
making the work a somewhat deeper yellow in color.
Having considered what I have told you concerning brass, it seems to
me impossible to deny that it is one ofthe works ofalchemy, since copper
is red by nature and this redness is taken from it by art and converted into
yellowness. This seems to me especially true in that by fire its fine color
evaporates as with [the alchemists’] other sophistries and it is returned to
red copper and almost to its former nature by four or six meltings.
In addition to the above earth, copper is also colored yellow by tutty*
and there are others who color it with a certain powdered red earth that
Arabian merchants mix with ginger in order that it may weigh more.
I do not wish to omit telling you likewise that with whichever of the
above things this brass is made, you must be careful that it does not
evaporate if you desire to preserve a good color on melting. [211^] But
this applies more to small things than large. Since I cannot tell you every
detail in the discussion on melting I thought it well to advise you and
give you here the method that I have seen in my own experience. Cer¬
tainly I have also learned it from the alchemists. Every time that you
wish to melt, in order to prevent the color from evaporating, cover the
top ofthe crucible or other melting vessel with crushed glass and have the
blast ofthe bellows blown on it from beneath. I must warn you also that,
* Tutty is an impure oxide of zinc that collects about the upper parts of furnaces in
which ores containing zinc are smelted. According to Lohneiss [Bericht von Bergwercken,
1617), Erasmus Ebener introduced the manufacture of brass from ofenbruch in place of
native calamine at Rammelsberg in about the year 1550. This resulted in a great profit, as
vast piles of this material had accumulated as the discard of many years. Ercker (1574)
mentions the use ofthe furnace accretions from the Goslar lead ores for brass making, and
describes a blast furnace with removable front to allow their ready removal.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK I 76
for your own health, you must avoid its smoke when you melt, because
this is very harmful and continuing over a period of time it is deadly
poison; often it leaves men stumied, paralyzed, or stupid, or makes them
asthmatic and gives them more diseases than I can name. This is caused
by its subtle and penetrating fumes, and, because ofits poor and ill-fixed
elemental mixture, it exhales almost as much as quicksilver does.
Figure 4. Furnace for making brass.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND BOOK
Concerning the Semiminerals.
AVING previously described the metals to you, before I
proceed any farther I do not wish to fail to tell you, as I
promised to do in the first chapter on metals, what I have
learned through experience concerning the semiminerals,
although this may seem to you outside our proposed sub¬
ject. Since these are not produced by Nature as all rock or
all metal they are called semiminerals by speculative physicians. Many
kinds ofthese are found; those that resemble rocks are earthy, very diffi¬
cult to liquefy, and much more adapted for adorning paintings than for
anything else. Those that liquefy with fire, like sulphur, antimony, mar￾casite, [22] calamine, zaffre, manganese, and others, resemble the metals
almost like brothers. Some others are more watery so that they dissolve in
water, although they are fairly dense, and are obtained and reduced to
their perfection by means of water. These are the salts, vitriol, rock
alum, and saltpeter. To these, as a watery thing, belongs also quicksilver,
as it is commonly called because of its motion. Although it appears not
only hquid, but very liquid, this is not at all similar in its effects to any of
the above. Indeed, it retains its same being until its very form is consumed.
Since the reasons for its effects are almost impossible to investigate, I do
not intend to speak ofthem here or to enter now this maze ofspeculation,
because I wish to make definitely clear to you what this quicksilver really
is. Therefore, leaving aside opinions and disputes, I shall take only those of
the said semiminerals that I know are useful.
First we shall see the method by which the semiminerals can be found
and then how they are to be extracted from their matrices. These, per¬
haps, have no less need of effort and industry than the metals since they
are substances completely hidden in the rocks or in the earth. For this
reason some of these that are sought are made use of by means offusion
after they have been mined from their mother mountains, and some
others need to be disposed by a certain maturative corruption, now with
moisture and coldness, now with dryness and heat, as with waters, rains,
frosts, or long baking in the sun, with fire, or even with a strong reheating
within themselves. Most ofthem can finally be brought to the desired end
by means ofsolution with water and fire.
78 PIROTECHNIA BOOK n
You will understand and I will tell you that no metal can be extracted
by any means that I know from any semiminerals I shall mention even
though they seem to be metallic because oftheir weight and appearance.
But as you learn by experience you will see that they are nothing other
than mineral fumosities or the beginnings of minerals. Some others
produce a certain amount of metal, but it is so brittle and imperfect a
thing that they can be called useless except as they serve the fraudulent
alchemists for whitening copper or hardening tin. But I also believe that
they [the imperfect metals] are not of much use even to the alchemists
because they are very volatile materials, like those that are taken from
antimony, from orpiment, from calamine, and also perhaps from some
marcasite, zaffre, and manganese.* Although these melt by certain means,
they do not yield the least shadow of metal.
The salts, alums, vitriols, and ochre, as well as bole and borax, also give
some trace of it. All these, or most of them, have a certain corrosive
power, either [22p] apparent or hidden, and they also have the property of
drying and burning. Because ofthese effects medical art makes great use
of them in the healing of men. The alchemists also use them for similar
reasons, for they alter and break up almost everything with which they
are mixed. Quicksilver also produces similar effects, although it acts with
a different kind ofpower, for which reason various disputes regarding its
peculiar effects arise among the naturalists.
But leaving these aside now, I say in conclusion that almost all such
semiminerals are powerful and harmful poison to everything that they
approach and that they intrinsically penetrate. For the peculiar character
of these effects I refer you to the practical experimenters of both the
alchemistic arts and to anyone who uses them in other ways, and I leave
this discussion.
I shall begin in the first chapter of the Second Book to tell you about
quicksilver, then I shall tell you about sulphur, rock alum, common sea
salt and the mineral variety; later about calamine, marcasite, and the like;
and finally about all those that I have heard of or that seem to me most
fitting for our purpose.
*We interpret this sentence as a definite reference to brittle metalUc antimony,
arsenic, and zinc and possibly also to impure iron, cobalt, and manganese. The last two
metals were not generally recognized until the eighteenth century, and zinc was known
only as an accidental condensate in lead-smelting furnaces, or as an Oriental importation.
It must be remembered that Biringuccio considered malleability an essential property of
metals and brittle materials were not metalHc.
CHAPTER I QUICKSILVER 79
THE FIRST CHAPTER
Concerning Quicksilver and Its Ore. OUICKSILVER is a body that consists offlowing and liquid mate¬
rials, almost like water with a shining whiteness; it is composed by
Nature of a viscous, subtle substance with an overflowing abun¬
dance of moistness and coldness together. This composition, in the opin¬
ion ofthe philosophic alchemists, is a thing that is very disposed to become
metal—indeed they say that it is the original seed of all metals. When it
lacks the warmness and dryness or the specific time that they require, it
cannot congeal and so remains in the form that we see as an imperfect
thing without becoming metal.
These clever investigators have also called it mercury in consideration
ofits properties, perhaps because ofits resemblance to the planet of him
whose actions place him between gods and men, according to the poets in
their stories. Thus these investigators think that this has a similar place
among perfect metals, since it is the primary mineral matter. It might also
be that they called it so because like the god Mercury it is winged and
fugitive, and by virtue of its powerful subtlety penetrates all things and
can issue forth from them at will. But let it be called by any name they
wish—it does not matter to us. I, like them, shall sometimes call it mer¬
cury and sometimes [23 ] quicksilver as it has been named to me, and you
will understand it as such.
Now I shall leave aside the disputes on whether it is the primary matter
ofmetals or not, since I have said enough concerning this question in the
first chapter ofthe First Book. In order to approach what the philosophers
say about it, I say that it may well be material about to be converted into
metal, but since it is seen to be so ill-proportioned and so badly decocted,
I cannot believe that it can be disposed to the generation of all kinds of
metals. Indeed, ifit is, I think that ifits necessary processes had not been
interrupted it would be more apt to generate lead, tin, iron, or even silver
rather than copper or gold. And ifwe wish to consider it in relation to the
natural complexions [of metals] or to the power of the planets, I think
that mercury is far distant from those of gold and from the power ofthe
sun and ofthe moon. Therefore I say that ifit is not what I have said, it is a
thing that Nature has been pleased to make as it is.
I am led to say this because all ofit that I have seen has had the same
8o PIROTECHNIA BOOK II
form and the same quality. Alchemists in the opinions cited above wish to
prove at all costs that quicksilver is truly a defect of Nature so that they
can hope to remedy it with their art. For this reason they are continually
agitated in mind and body in their effort to aid it and to supply the neces¬
sary thing that Nature lacked in order to bring it to perfection. In the
search for this thing endless opinions and disputes have arisen, for one
beheves one thing and another, another. Thus they remain suspended in
troublous combat without reaching a decision. Some say that in order to
give it metallic fixity it must first be deprived of every vital spirit, and to
do this one man buries it in poisons or in poisonous juices of herbs and
another submerges it in corrosive and potent acids. Others want to have it
converted by fire into a dry calcine by ingenious methods. In short, one
wants to do it one way and one another, so that there are even those who
distrust it and hate it and refuse to practice wherever it is involved in any
way, while some arc ofthe opposite opinion and expend all their ability,
time, and hope in following it.
Thus since each one considers it from his own point of view, a con¬
fusion ofideas is created; indeed it is the sport and flirt ofthe alchemistic
crowd, who continually stand around it with the desire to anatomize it,
attempting sometimes with cajoleries and deceits, and sometimes with
force, to put it in most narrow prisons or to wall it in with various de¬
vices, or else to lock it up with irons or other strong chains. Others, since
they cannot make it die, try to weary its bones with various falls and
blows and by cutting offits wings in order to deprive it of all the strength
ofits powerful flight. Thus the poor thing often finds itselfin a very sorry
predicament. Yet, after aU, it is one ofthe gods and has divine strength in
itself, and also, to the annoyance of the alchemists, it is winged. Hence,
when it sees that it is in gravest danger, it loosens itself from their every
bond in order to save its life [231^] and it flies away into the heavens,
escaping from the hands of those who crucify it. Almost laughing, it
leaves all its adversaries mocked and scorned with their phials and filters
empty. In this way it declares its nature to us and shows us its wateriness
and subtlety, which is indeed such that, without being driven out by the
heat of fire, by its own instinct it fmds the exit through every smallest
pore. In this same way, ifthis mercury is put for keeping in any kind of a
metal vessel, it easily gnaws holes in it and gets out, although it contains
no saltiness and is of a cold and moist nature. It should not do this since
it condenses on account ofthe coldness and moistness and becomes weak,
CHAPTER I QUICKSILVER 8i
coarse, and impotent. There are, however, some who claim that it has
warm properties because ofcertain ofits effects, like those that it shows in
medicine.
Among its other notable qualities it also has this, that it holds suspended
as a light thing any metal that is placed on top ofit in a vessel, and, bearing
it up, allows it to float.* An exception is gold, which it embraces and,
instead of holding it in suspension, it draws it into itself to the very bot¬
tom. It does not join with nor approach any other thing without the aid
of art, even though that thing be liquid and moist, but it does not leave
gold because its humidity is well mixed with viscosity.
This is called quicksilver: silver because it resembles silver in color, and
quick because it is found free in the ore and remains so. It is a mobile
thing as we see and very difficult to destroy. When it is distilled alone it
rises wholly into the neck of the aludel or cucurbitf or other vessel in
which it is distilled without leaving any earthy part on the bottom and
without changing its form and even without losing any of its weight
unless you should apply a very strong fire. This happens because the
earthy substance in it is greatly refmed and well mixed with the viscous
moistness. Thus when the fire, as its opposite, drives it out, one carries the
other along because Nature has bound these substances so closely together.
Although I have spoken above in general about its whiteness, I tell you
that in the opinion of Avicenna this comes from its great wateriness and
fme earthiness decocted with much air. There are many who, because they
see it so Hquid and clear and almost in the form ofwater, have said that it
is pure water which has been somewhat condensed and decocted by the
heat ofsulphur. This is false, because it is impossible that pure water be
condensed by any heat, but ifthey should say that it comes from the great
coldness, either intrinsic or extrinsic, they would perhaps be right.
But to conclude: This composition is very well known, particularly to
the alchemists. It is used for many things in medicine on account of its
coldness. It is numbered among the poisons. It has the property of con¬
tracting the nerves of those workers who extract it from ore if they are
not very careful, and it makes the limbs ofthose who continually handle
it weak and paralyzed. Mixed with sulphur and then distilled it makes
cinnabar, and likewise mixed with sal ammoniac [24] it makes what is
commonly called [corrosive] subhmate or “hard silver.” This is a white,
* callare. We have assumed this to be a misprint £ot gallare.
f The 1540 edition reads lutel 0 boccha, all others aludel 0 boccia.
82 PIROTECHNIA BOOK II
shining materialjust like snow, very corrosive and a deadly poison. Many
other things are made from it, but it would take too long ifI wished to
narrate them all in detail.
Therefore leaving these I shall tell you now how its ore is found. You
must know that most ofit is excavated in mountains and in those places
where the planet Mercury has the most influence or where the earth is
most disposed, as happens in the case of all the other ores. It is commonly
generated in a white, soft rock or in another white rock hke Hme. It is also
often found in a dark red stone almost like cinnabar but spongy like
pumice, in whose little spongy cavities it is engendered like tiny drops of
water. The more ofthese that are visible in it the better the ore is, but if
somewhat gray or blue spots like mould appear in this rock the ore will be
poor.
All the mountains or places where it is engendered have abundant
water and trees, and the grasses are very green, because it has a moist cool¬
ness in it and does not give off dry vapors as sulphur, vitriol, salt, and
similar minerals do. However, it is true that the trees there do not produce
blossoms, or ifthey do, do not bring their fruits to maturity. In spring they
bring forth leaves later than in other places, although they should do the
opposite on account ofthe moist coolness there. In the month ofApril or
May before sunrise when the weather is tranquil and quiet, the places
where this quicksilver is found are recognized by certain thick and dense
vapors that rise above these places but do not go very high because they
are heavy. Some who are experienced in this follow this sign almost
exactly as one does with water, and they say that if this ore is turned
toward the north wind it is most perfect.
Learned alchemists call this mercurius vulgi, holding it in great contempt
in their work, and saying, in confirmation ofwhat I have told you, that it
is not what Nature uses in generating metals. But I think that they cannot
deny that also in this there may be some part ofthat mercury that they do
mean. For this reason I greatly marvel that, in order to possess it, they go
hunting about for it amidst the substance of Saturn,* an earthy, red, and
imperfect metal, although there is as much in one as in the other, and they
leave it in this material that is nearer and that is indeed perhaps, as many
say, just the one that generates the thing that they are seeking.
Now whether they find it or not, and in what thing they find it, I leave
to them; but I return to my subject and say that after its ore has been found
* i.e., lead.
CHAPTER I QUICKSILVER 83
it is extracted from it in many ways. [24V] Since it is generated in a
spongy rock of the kind I have described above, it is easily ground up
with stamps or with an olive oil mill that crushes it, and then it is washed.
But if it is greatly mixed with rock there are many who place it in a
httle chamber with a ceiling that is arched like a barrel or bowl.* This
chamber is not very large but is well plastered. At the bottom they make a
floor that inclines somewhat toward the middle and is neatly paved. At
Figure 5. Chambers for the condensation ofmercury vapor
distilled from the ore.
one side within the wall they make one or more little furnaces arranged
in such a way that the openings through which the fire is applied extend
outside the chamber. On top ofthe furnaces they build in as many pots as
there is room for and fill them with the said mineral powdered or reduced
to many little pieces. Then between the vault of the chamber and the
floor they make a bush of green tree branches and close up the window
and the entrance so that no air can enter. Then they light the fires in the
furnaces. When the mercury feels the warmth ofthe fire and tries to flee
from it as its opposite, it rises in evaporation and issues from the mouth of
the vessels. Feeling a certain moist coolness which the leaves of those
branches have like itself, it runs out and attaches itselfto them. When the
experienced worker thinks or believes that the substance ofthe mercury
* After describing distillation per descensum, Agricola {De re metallica, Book IX, pp.
345 seq.) copies almost verbatim this description of methods of extracting mercury. He
provides, however, a much better illustration of Biringuccio’s first method, and we re¬
produce this in the Appendix (Fig. II).
PIROTECHNIA BOOK n 84
has entirely issued from the material that he put in the pots, he allows
the fire to go out and everything to grow cold. Then he opens the said
chamber, and although a good part ofthe mercury has fallen by its own
weight from the branches where it had been attached, he shakes the said
branches and causes what has not fallen to fall and then carefully gathers it
up from the floor. They continue in this way as long as there is ore.
There are some others who extract it with less trouble by means of
Figure 6. Distillation of mercury ores in pots.
large earthenware pots which are so put together that the mouth of one
fits into that of the other. Having filled up the largest pot with ore they
put a layer ofsand or ofsifted ashes on top ofit so that when the quick¬
silver, driven by the fire, rises into the next pot above and then returns to
its place condensed in drops [25] like water, it falls on the ashes or sand.
When the pot has cooled, the quicksilver can easily be washed and re¬
trieved there.
There are others who, in place of pots, make certain earthenware ves¬
sels wide at the top and narrow at the bottom like the moulds for making
sugar. For these they make a fitted earthenware cover a dito or more in
thickness and glazed inside. They fill this vessel with well-ground or
crushed ore and cover it over with sifted ashes to a depth of one or two
dita. They close up the vessel well with the cover, tying it or weighting it
down with some heavy thing on top. Then they apply fire to the furnace
on which the vessels rest. Thus when the mercury feels the heat it issues
from the ore and rises because it wishes to evaporate and, striking against
the cover, falls among the ashes as in the method mentioned above. It is
CHAPTER I QUICKSILVER 85
recovered thence, as you have understood, by washing or by sifting it
with fme sieves.
Some others have told me that they have seen a vessel similar to the one
that is called a distilling bell used in place ofthis cover and ashes; [25^] this
collects with its long channel that which is converted into mercury and
Figure 7. Earthenware pots for extracting mercury.
carries it into the receptacle through its long beak. Thus, with the lower
vessel filled with ground ore and the upper one well covered and sealed, it
is put on the fire and the mercury is made to rise into the upper one. All
that comes out enters the receptacle as ifit were water. Thus ifyou should
ever fmd such ore which will repay the expense, you will use whichever
ofthese methods seems from experience to serve you best.
Figure 8. Recovery ofmercury with a distilling bell.
86 PIROTECHNIA BOOK II
THE SECOND CHAPTER
Concerning Sulphur and Its Ore. SULPHUR is a very well-known mineral and apparently is produced
in many places. It is engendered from an unctuous earthy and
powerfully hot substance so that it is considered among experienced
workers to bear a resemblance to the element offire. This is called by these
same men the masculine seed and the prime agent ofNature in the com¬
position ofmetals. Because ofits great dryness and heat it has, as experi¬
ence shows, affinity with fire, which is easily introduced in it when
brought near. And once introduced the fire is quenched only with diffi¬
culty before its unctuousness is wholly consumed.
Although it shows itselfto us ofsuch a hot and dry nature, we must not
think that sulphur is a substance so pure that it can stand by itselfor that in
order to attain its form it has no need ofits portion and part ofmoisture
like every other mixture. This is shown to us by its easy fusion, in which it
resembles the metals.
This thing is found in many places and in many varieties ofcolor; some
are white, others yellow and orange, and some others between gray and
black. They also say that some red is found. It does not occur in that
arrangement of veins like other minerals, but most liberal Nature makes
whole mountains ofit as is seen in the Aeolian islands, [26] near Sicily, in
Ema or MoncibeUo which is the island of Sicily, at Pozzuoli, in the terri¬
tory ofRome, in the Sienese domain at San Filippo, and in many other
similar places.
It is a substance that has a very strong odor and is most unpleasant to
smell. It is very fixed in its substance so that it is never corrupted by time,
by boiling, or by the moisture of water. For although it may stand in
water a long time it never becomes soft nor does it ever decrease or in¬
crease in weight. It is brittle and easily crushed very fine. It is said that a
trace ofgarlic rubbed on the mortar helps anyone who wishes to reduce it
to impalpabihty.
Its ores have a form more like earth than like stone although they some¬
times have the color ofa certain soft rock. The places where it is found are
easily recognized by the great odor that they give out and by the very hot
baths that often spring forth near it.
What I have already told you about quicksilver that is contrary to the
CHAPTER 2 SULPHUR 87
opinion ofthe philosophic alchemists concerning the generation ofmetals
I now repeat to you concerning sulphur, because I do not beHeve that
either of these really occurs except in similar elemental substances. I say
this because I have never seen sulphur found in any metal mine, or metal
near any sulphur or mercury ore. Indeed, thinking of this just now an¬
other question to be solved has occurred to me; that is, how heat and cold,
moisture and dryness, can be generated in the same place at the same
time, and, once generated, how they can unite in such an elemental
mixture that one is almost converted into the other, as they say necessarily
happens when metals are generated from mercury and sulphur. To this is
added the moisture ofthe water and the coldness ofthe earth that are in
the same place; and it seems that the warmth ofthe fire element has httle
power because ofits great distance. Hence it seems to me that these things
far surpass the dry and hot, although the sun when it is hot can be called
upon to intervene.
But in order to avoid multiplying such considerations and disputes I
now leave them, all the more so because my intention is only to tell you
how minerals are found and, once found, how they are extracted from the
earth. Up to now I have told you in general ofthe places that, because of
certain oftheir properties, have given and give much food for thought in
the minds ofmen when they see various mountains that, because ofthese
minerals, have long erupted* and even today erupt fearful and horrible
fires and huge smokes, and others that send forth suddenly and without
flames various thick and very hot vapors. Still others send forth boiling
water that is intolerable to the hand ofman and to anything with feeling.
There are also some sulphur ores that exhale a vapor so foul and subtle and
so sharp in power that it actually stifles the breath and corrupts the vital
spirits ofanyone who goes near. For this reason birds that pass above these
ores in their flight often fall to earth beaten and overcome as ifthey were
dead; and hares, deer, goats, or other wild or tame animals that by neces¬
sity come near to them do likewise; even the little [261^] Hzards and
poisonous serpents die as soon as they reach there. The same thing would
happen to men if they did not approach with greater foresight and cau¬
tion. Yet it is not for this reason to be considered among those materials
that are wholly harmful, for it is used in many medicines for the health of
men.
Now leaving these things I say that one kind ofsulphur is found more
* Follows Midi’s suggestion of vomitare for nominare.
88 PIROTECHNIA BOOK II
pure than another. Since all the varieties ofits colors are ofthe same nature
it would take too long to list them. The opinions or the real reasons for
this are truly very difficult to understand and oflittle practical value.
Now it is not necessary that I tell you much concerning the signs ofthe
places where Nature produces this ore since, as I told you before, besides
the evidence ofthe sight, its foul and unpleasant odor is such that it gives
sign ofthe sulphur from near and afar.
Figure 9. Tubulated vessels for the extraction ofsulphur by distillation.
It is excavated from open mines because if the miners should try to
extract it in any other way they could not endure to stay inside the mines
on account ofthe great heat and unendurable odor that it gives out.
Supposing then that you have mined a quantity ofsuch sulphurous soil
and that you wish to extract the sulphur, it is necessary to make a furnace
that has a grate and that is ofsufficient length where the fire enters to con¬
tain the space of two vessels made of fire-resistant earthenware. These
must be shaped like ajar, a braccio or more high, with walls half a dito or
more thick; above the mouths they have a cover ofthe same earthenware
which sets in the mouth and can be fitted in there. Near this cover each of
the two vessels has a tube, also of earthenware, which is united with the
vessel and Joined to it like the two tubes of bellows but narrower. Near
these there must be another vessel of the same shape, with its cover but
without the tubes; it must have two holes as entrances at the top and
another hole in the bottom at the foot and a part to make an exit for the
sulphur which is about to enter. It is necessary to have for every operation
CHAPTER 2 SULPHUR 89
at least three ofthese for every furnace, or six in order to have a fire on
both sides. Those two vessels with the tubes that I spoke of before are
bricked in, with the bottom resting [27] on the first grating, and then they
are sealed by bricking them in at the top all around the mouth so that the
flames may not escape except through the two or three vents made on top
at the head ofthe furnace. Then the third vessel is placed outside the fur¬
nace in a place where it does not feel the heat ofthe fire and the tubes of
Figure 10. Apparatus for the distillation ofsulphur.
both the others are made to enter individually into the body through open
holes that were left at the top. Then this vessel is also bricked in all around
up to beyond the tubes ofthe others, and the exit is left at the hole at the
bottom that is on the other side ofthe vessel.
Now the sulphur ore is put in the first two vessels and they are closed
with the cover and well sealed with lute so that they may not breathe. The
same thing is done to the other vessel that is placed as a receiver. When
this has been done, a good and powerful flaming fire is applied under¬
neath, with the wood placed between two grates. This is continued until
you think that the substance that is in the ore has passed into the receiver
that you placed there. This substance passes like a smoke through the
tubes, thickens there and becomes sulphur; when it becomes like melted
wax, it falls to the bottom. Ifthe master wishes, he causes it to run out as it
forms, passing through the exit that was left in the receiver level with the
bottom. Thus he allows it all to form a cake or else it is poured into tubes
of cane, wood, or terra cotta. Whatever they may be, these moulds are
PIROTECHNIA BOOK n 90
well moistened so that the sulphur can be detached. Then, when the fire
has been put out under the furnace and everything allowed to cool well,
the two covers are opened up and the earthy part ofthe ore that remains
inside and is like a dead cupeling hearth is emptied out. Then the same
vessels are filled again with new earth and you repeat the process that you
performed before.
Among black and yellow sulphur ore is also found a certain kind of
sulphur that is made pure by the action ofNature herself This is very pure
without adding anything to it, and when it is broken is found to be clear
and beautiful inside like a glass that is yellow, black, or whatever color it
may be. This is called live sulphur. It is indeed true that little ofit is found
and that that which is found is on the surfaces of the mountains, formed
almost like an exhalation. All the sulphur that [271^] is found, whatever
color it may have, is of a hot and dry nature.
To conclude: As I told you, sulphur melts and by means of its fusion
one can mould any desired object from it as ifit were plaster ofParis, wax,
or melted metal. It serves human needs in medicine, in the purifying and
bleaching of wool, and in divers other things. But the greatest quantity
today is consumed in making gunpowder. Without the use of sulphur
this admirable thing would be nothing, because without it it would be
impossible to introduce the fire instantaneously throughout the powder so
that it will ignite as it is seen to do.
The alchemists hold sulphur in great reverence as a material agent in all
their operations because ofits heat and dryness and because ofits yellow
color. Likewise, silk workers bleach their silk with its smoke enclosed in a
chest; and it makes their cloths as white as snow without any other dyeing
or cleansing. Learning ofthis, women bleach their black hair with it and
the grayish veils that they wear on their heads.
Sulphur can be sublimed, and oil can also be made of it for artificial
fires and medicines because it is hot and very drying. Furthermore, by
vigorously boiling it in a strong lye oflime and ashes, all its color and the
unctuousness that makes it combustible is attracted to these and it becomes
white and incombustible. This is as much as I can tell you about sulphur,
and ifyou wish to know more, take PHny, Albertus Magnus, Dioscorides,
or Avicenna, for all ofthese have written something about its effects.
CHAPTER 3 ANTIMONY 91
THE THIRD CHAPTER
Concerning Antimony and Its Ore. IN my opinion antimony* is a composition made by Nature to create a
metallic mineral that is overflowing with an undue proportion ofhot
and dry material and with its moisture poorly mixed, with an effect
wholly contrary to the composition ofmetals. Therefore, it comes to be,
like quicksilver, a mineral deformity and monstrosity among metals. Or
it might be a material that is about to reach metallic perfection, but is hin¬
dered from doing so by being mined too soon. I am persuaded to this
opinion by seeing in it so many parts similar to those ofmetals, consider¬
ing first its clear and brilhant color and its great weight and then the
regulusj' that it leaves at the bottom ofthe vessel on melting. Obviously
it has in it much earthiness, as is attested by the odor of its sulphurous
burning, its imperfect blending, its defective mixture, its difficult fusion,
and finally the character ofits regulus, for although this is very white and
almost more shining than silver, it is much more brittle than glass.
[28] The practical philosophers make great use ofit in their alchemistic
work in order, they say, to make an oil that they believe gives the color of
gold to fixed silver. For this reason many ofthem hold it in high repute,
especially the kind that has long thin fibers hke a bundle of bristles. And
they say that they can obtain greater results with it than with sulphur. I
believe this, however, in case it is aided by sulphur, since it is nearer the
metallic species than sulphur is. This I know for a certainty because I have
seen them extract from it a bloody liquor in the form of an oil. The
alchemist who made that which I saw told me that it had not only the
* The word antimony in Biringuccio’s time always meant the sulphide. As the metal
came to be better known it was called regulus of antimony to distinguish it from the sul¬
phide and this terminology persisted until the end of the eighteenth century. The metal
was known in Chaldean times, and its compounds were used as cosmetics throughout the
ancient world. Both Dioscorides and Pliny describe roasting the mineral and caution
against the danger of its turning to “lead” if roasted too much. Probably metallic anti¬
mony was being produced in Germany in Biringuccio’s time, for later in this chapter he
mentions importation of cakes ofthe smelted (or melted) metal to alloy with pewter or
bell metal, but he himselfseems only to know ofthe accidental production ofthe regulus
when the sulphide is melted. His ignorance is further apparent when he talks of type￾metal alloys (pages 374 to 375).
{ This is obviously a regulus of metallic antimony left by partial oxidation ofthe sul¬
phide on melting or by reaction with an iron stirring rod.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK n 92
property of giving a golden color to silver but also the property offixing
silver. This may be true, but as I said, I have seen only the hquor, and I
have never seen silver colored by it or by anything else.
The ore of antimony is found in mountainsjust like other metallic ores
and it is mined by various operations. The ore that I know is found in
Italy in various places. From Germany they bring to Venice some ofthe
smelted kind in cakes for the use ofthose masters who make bells, because
they find that by mixing a certain part of it with the metal the sound is
greatly increased. Those who make pewter vessels also use it as do those
who make mirrors both of glass and ofa special composition ofmetals. In
addition, so far as I know, it serves as medicine in surgery to medicate
abscesses or incurable ulcers; it lifts corruptions and the diseased flesh that
was there and has the virtue of helping Nature produce healthy flesh. It
also serves to make yellow colors for painting earthenware vases and for
tinting enamels, glasses, and other similar works just as one would wish
they were intrinsically yellow by virtue ofthe fire.
There are several mines of this antimony ore in the region of Siena,
among which one is near the city ofMassa in the Maremma and another
large quantity near another city called Sovana. Practiced experimenters
say that the latter is the best that they know. It is also found in the region
of Santa Fiore, near an estate called Selvena. And it is found not only in
these places that I have named but also in many others where, because it is
not gold ore or another important perfect metal, it is considered of httle
value. And what I have said is all that I know to tell about antimony.
THE FOURTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Marcasite ofMetals.
'ANY kinds ofmarcasite* are found since every metallic mineral,
and perhaps some ofthe semiminerals, produces its own. I be-
. heve that [28^] marcasites are nothing other than the secondary
materials and the menses ofthe conception ofmetals which, through in¬
sufficient time, have yet to arrive at their perfect age; and thus, because of
M
* Under the term margassita Biringuccio includes all sulpiride minerals with a metallic
luster, in addition to the mineral known as marcasite today. Undoubtedly the one he
would be most familiar with would be iron pyrites.
CHAPTER 4 MARCASITE 93
their immaturity, they are imperfect. Or ifthis is not true, then they are
the fumosities exhaled by the minerals, which become attached to the
rocks and are compounded by sublimation. Since they are usually found
high up one can believe that this is true.
Now you must decide which of the two things proposed satisfies you
best, for I do not know how I can demonstrate the truth in any other way.
But whatever they may be, no metal can be extracted from them alone
when they are pure. Because ofthe power ofthe hot and burned material
that they are seen to contain and that is called sulphur by the alchemists, if
they contained such a metal they [the metal and the sulphur] would be
consumed together in the smelting fire. Thus an unliquefiable and whoUy
burned viscous earthiness with a very unpleasant sulphurous odor remains
when the subtle watery substances that are called unfixed or not-well￾mixed mercury leave them.
Some say that they have melted it. Ifthis is true, I am confirmed in say¬
ing that the marcasite is the beginning of a mineral and not a sublimed
fumosity, because that which is melted must already have arrived at a
point of its metallic disposition or else there was some perfect mineral
mixed in with it through whose fusion the marcasite also came to fusion,
particularly if it is accompanied by a stone of a nature similar to fusible
marble.
Even if it does melt, marcasite does not produce a metal but a black
material like niello* or plumbago. This thing, as far as I know, is good for
nothing except to serve as a color for earthen vases or to tint glass or to
give the willing and credulous alchemists something to do. Some ofthese
alchemists say that it is the seed oftheir elixirs and they make these experi¬
ments oftheirs more on one kind ofmarcasite than on another. They use
for this especially that which already contains a trace of some perfect
metal, such as gold or silver. As soon as they find it they are happy, think¬
ing that it proceeds from the virtue oftheir art and that they have known
how to arrive at their predetermined goal. This happens only when the
marcasite is so disposed and also only when they have known how to
protect the silver from sulphur, arsenic, or fire.
I am also forced to say and am confirmed in the beliefthat marcasite is a
composed mineral rather than an exhalation when I see the arrangement
ofits composition. For I have seen on the border between Friuli and upper
Germany a very large stratum ofmarcasite that crossed through a moun-
* See note, p. 365.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK n
94
tain. High up on the surface there was exposed a vein more than 150
braccia long and more than half a hraccio thick throughout. And ifit had
been a fumosity rather than the real cause of ore, we would have to say,
from its size, that the ore from which it proceeded must have been of a
very large quantity, almost larger than the whole mountain.
Although some say that it is an exhalation, they beheve that after some
time the rains and the power ofthe sun’s heat introduce in the part that is
uncovered a certain metallic quality. Even if it could be [29] true that
these persons find this thing and say that it proceeds from the heat, cold, or
rains, how do they know that it is not a substance that comes from the
roots ofthe ore? For, as we see. Nature always tends toward multiplica¬
tion and tends to change the stone or disposed material that comes near to
it so that, growing, it arrives at the surface.
This composition called marcasite is found in various kinds and colors.
That which is clear and yellow would surely seem to be a very fine gold
if it were heavier. It is also found, albeit in small quantities, of such a
whiteness that it seems to be pieces ofwell-cupeled and burnished silver.
Another kind is also seen that has a color midway between white and yel¬
low. The greatest quantity is found in veins and in the form of coarse or
small grains, all in little cubes like dice, or in dodecahedra* so correctly
squared that no draftsman could draw their comers more accurately or
better with any sort ofinstrument.
Whatever their form may be, they have a very strong smell ofsulphur
when they are handled, and they are not extremely hard. One kind is
found that is very easily crumbled. Others give offnumerous sparks offire
when they are struck against a cut edge or corner oftempered steel; this is
particularly true of a certain marcasite mineral that is found above the
vitriol mineral that looks like cast iron.
Now which of these is to be praised as the best, whether the white or
yellow or the large or small, I refer to whoever uses it in his experiments,
whether he be a doctor or alchemist, for I consider it a useless thing in the
field of metals. But speaking with a certain judgment and also following
the authority of a practicing alchemist, I say that if any ofthem is good,
the white is the best, as long as it is not of a ferruginous nature, for it does
not contain as much ofthat burned evilness as does the yellow kind.
* bisquadre.
CHAPTER 5 VITRIOL 95
THE FIFTH CHAPTER
Concerning Vitriol and Its Ore. VITRIOL is likewise a mineral substance from whose exhalation,
according to the opinion ofsome, are generated and produced the
elemental materials or substances which produce metals, particular¬
ly gold. It is not a fumosity from metal nor is it a thing from which metal
is extracted in any manner, although it shows in certain ways that it is not
entirely without metal since it produces a certain trace ofit. It is a thing
that has a great resemblance to alum; it has a biting substance, is sharp to
the taste and pungent to the tongue, and has an astringent nature. It dis¬
solves in water and every damp place in a short time. They say that the
reason for this lies, as with every other mineral, in its poorly joined
watery substances. Nor does this mean that it does not contain much
earthiness; on the contrary it seems to me that there are in it five [29^] dif¬
ferent participating quahties, that is, the property ofsulphur, the action of
alum, the corrosion ofniter or ofsalt, and from the metals, the properties
of copper and ofiron.
Its ore is mined in the valleys ofmountains in wild but not too rugged
places. It is more a gray earth or soft dead rock than a hard stone. It always
has in it some yellow and green spots or near it is some sulphur mineral,
either large or small. When it is beneath the earth it exhales a sharp and
very strong foul odor of scorching similar to that of sulphur. And the
waters that rise where it is are all foul, earthy, and thick, some boiling
with great fumes and others without great fumes, so that they surely
appear to be infernal products in many places where there is a large
quantity ofit.
After you have excavated and sorted well the quantity you wish, the
ore must be put in a heap in open airy places before the vitriol can be
extracted from this soil or ore, however you wish to call it. And it is left
thus exposed to the weathering ofthe rains, the cold, and the sun for five
or six months. It must be turned several times in order to bring to the
surface that which was underneath; and always when this is done it is
broken small with the eye ofa mattock so that it is better heated and baked
throughout. When it has been brought to this point it is covered over by a
shed built above it or it is carried under a hut that has already been made.
Here it is left to stand for another six or eight months before it is worked.
96 PIROTECHNIA BOOK U
Now near where the ore is found or in some other convenient place
where there is sufficient water, a bath is first made about twenty or
twenty-five braccia long, about ten or twelve braccia wide, and about four
braccia high, with an outlet reaching to the bottom that can be opened in
order to wash out the residue of the purified earth. About half a braccio
from the bottom, three or four holes are made that can be opened or
closed as the need arises. Near this bath is made a container that is care¬
fully walled in and covered with the same roofthat covers the rest ofthe
construction; this container is as long as the bath itself and three or four
braccia wide, and has holes corresponding to those that I told you were
left on the front ofthe bath.
When they wish to extract the substance of vitriol from this ore, the
bath is halffilled with water and all the holes are plugged so that it cannot
run out. Then they take that quantity of the ore mentioned above that
they think the water placed there will dissolve well, and they put it in
little by little, continually mixing it well and causing it to become like a
sauce, or more liquid. When this is well dissolved it is allowed to stand
until the water has become clear again and the coarse earthy parts have
gone to the bottom washed and cleansed. The water remains laden and
saturated with sharp substances disposed to make vitriol, and all ofit that
remains clear in the bath is passed into the adjoining receptacle through
the three tubes with the three holes. In case this water should not seem to
you to have strong virtues or to be sufficiently laden with vitriol to please
you, more earth is added to the same water; and in the opposite case, ifit
seems to you that the earth has not given up every particle of vitriol, more
water is added.
But granted that the water is strong with that substance and that it has
become clear and has been passed into the said receptacle, [30] ifyou wish
to convert it into vitriol, you boil it. To do this, ten or twelve rectangular
boilers are made oflead, about as large as those in which salt is manufac¬
tured, and under each ofthese a furnace is built in such a way that its head
inclines backwards to the receptacle that contains the clear water. Above
the furnace on each boiler is a tube that empties the boiler when it is
opened. Then the hquid*is boiled for a long time so that the watery parts
that it contains may evaporate to a certain point. Then whenever you
wish, when the water is very hot, a certain quantity ofiron, either old or
* pietra, obviously in error.
CHAPTER 5 VITRIOL 97
new, is thrown in to be dissolved, as much as the nature of the water
seems to be able to use.* They continue to cook it, boiling it moderately
until a test shows that the said water is about to become dense and con¬
gealed. Then when the workers see it reduced to this condition they take
it from the boiler, having already put out the fire some time before. They
put it in a large vat or in casks or other large wooden vessels and let it
stand there for two or three days so that every part disposed to congeal
may do so. Then the water that has not congealed is poured off and re¬
turned to the boders or it is kept, either to have its substance extracted or
to let it serve as a magistery for new waters.
Then when the vitriol that they find congealed is taken from the casks,
large vats, or pans, either they put it in a boiler or they fill the pans with it,
for they have a large number ofthese as moulds for making loaves. They
melt all or a part ofit in the boder and then pour into the pans the quan¬
tity that seems sufficient to unite in one piece aU that is in the pan when it
congeals again. In case it does not congeal in the middle the first time and
it can be pierced, the water is poured out and it is fiUed up again with new
congealed vitriol. And the other is put back on the fire to liquefy in the
same way as above. Finally all that is lacking is filled up by doing this two
or three times and complete loaves are formed. However, more beauti¬
ful and clearer loaves are made when it is poured into the pans to congeal
and allowed to congeal three or four times.
Vitriol ore is found m many places in Italy and abroad. Some say that
wherever it is found it is an indication of gold ore, but I cannot approve
this as certain. It is mined everywhere from open mines because ofits evil
and unbearable odors like those ofsulphur or worse. Its location is recog¬
nized by various signs, particularly by its many odors, which show where
it is so that it is not necessary to seek it by other means than these and by
the sight.
To those who use this vitriol in dyeing or in other works I leave the
question ofwhich ofall kinds is the best. The Cyprian and Babylonian are
greatly praised by the alchemists. But in order that I may not stray too far
from my subject, I shall speak ofthe Italian and particularly ofthat about
which I have the most information. This is called Roman and is mined in
the region ofBagnorea. [301^] Although it is not well vitrified and clear
and is not ofthe lovely blue-green color that the Cyprian is, still it serves
* This iron addition is to reduce ferric sulphate to ferrous, and to remove such traces of
copper sulphate as may be present.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK II 98
very well; certainly of all that I have seen, with the exception of that of
Massa, it is the blackest, most beautiful, and the best.
I have seen in Venice a great quantity of vitriol that comes from Ger¬
many. Little other is used there, but in my opinion it is much more earthy
than the Roman. Most vitriol tends to a grass-green color, but this is
rather yellowish, although some ofit has some green mixed with it.
That which I have told you is mined at Massa in Tuscany is as powerful
and beautiful as the Cyprian. It is also mined at Travale and Monte
Rotondo, at San Filippo, at Sovana, and in many other places in the Sienese
territory. It could also be mined in the region of Volterra; and in mount
Amiata in the Santa Fiorian region. It could be mined and I beHeve that
it was once mined there.
It is the opinion of some that white vitriol is also found. As far as I
know the alchemists willingly use the Cyprian and the Roman to make
their oils and strong corrosive acids; and I am certain that they would
willingly use that ofMassa ifthey could have it, because it is very strong
and greatly resembles the Cyprian; and it is so free from earthiness that it
could be used as soon as it is mined.
Vitriol is found in all kinds ofsulphur as I told you. And it is also found
reduced to its ultimate purity by Nature herself without art. This is
thrown forth by the heat like a skin on the mixed ore when it is weath¬
ered. This is a very powerful vitriol and is not called vitriol but copperas.
It is much used by the alchemists as a strong and drying material, and
painters use it for the same reason wherever they need to dry their mixed
colors quickly.
THE SIXTH CHAPTER
Concerning Rock Alum and Its Ore. PASSING over the derivation ofthe word as well as the description
of the alum that has been written of as a liquid and that was once
called natta, I tell you that the alum that is commonly called rock
alum today is a congealed earthy substance, clear and transparent, ofa hot
and dry nature, and ofa bitter taste with a certain unctuous saltiness. It has
an astringent and corrosive property and is drawn from mineral stones by
means of art. All that I have seen is ofthe same nature but oftwo colors.
CHAPTER 6 ROCK ALUM 99
white and red. Pliny says that some black was once found. It is a thing
known from ancient times, but one does not see from ancient writers that
they used the methods for discovering and extracting it that the modems
do. It is a material that has a great viscosity in addition to its intrinsic and
natural saltiness; this is more obviously understood than any ofits other
effects when one wishes to calcine it and places it on the fire. It dissolves
easily with water and fire, so [31] it is given its perfection and purified of
its earthiness by water and fire.
Alchemists and parters make great use of it; indeed without it they
could not make their acids, nor could dyers ofcloth and wool work with¬
out it for alum is as necessary to them as bread to men. It is also used for
tanning raw leather and in medicine for various illnesses.
The ore ofits stone is found in the mountains like other ores, but in few
places. Although the ancients said that it was found in Cyprus, Armenia,
Macedonia, Pontus, and in Africa, Lipari, Sicily, Sardinia, and also in
Spain, and that it was found as a liquid hke honey,* I have not heard that
alum is now found anywhere except at Hellespont near Mytilene, in
Spain near Cartagena in a place called Mazarron; and it is found in Italy in
many places, in greater quantity and of a more beautiful and better kind
than elsewhere. Beginning first from the extremities ofItaly, I teUyou that
it is found in the dominion ofNaples at Ischia and at Pozzuoli, and in that
of Rome near the seashore twelve miles between Civitavecchia and
Cometo in a place called LaTolfa. There are many mountains together
there, and one can say that most of these are mountains of alum. These
have been known from the time of Pius Ilf and from that time to the
present day they have been industriously mined by the Apostolic Cham¬
ber and its ministers and an unbelievable treasure has been taken from
them. I believe that they will continue thus until the Day ofJudgment
since this place is so endowed with stone and wood and every necessary
thing that the work will never have to be stopped by human action. Alum
is also found in the realm of Siena at Massa and Monte Rotondo and in
many other places in the same territory. Furthermore, it is found in the
neighborhood of Piombino at Montecone and in that of Volterra at
Campiglia. I do not know that the ore ofalum has been discovered in any
other place, either in or outside ofItaly.
* Pliny, Natural History, Book XXXV, para. 183-185, mentions a liquid alumen and
says that it is mixed with honey to form a preparation to apply to sores.
f 1458-1464 A.D.
100 PIROTECHNIA BOOK n
Of those kinds of alum mentioned I have seen only three. One is that
of Italy, which is very white, clear, and transparent like large pieces of
crystal, It congeals in thick squares with beautiful comers that look like
large diamonds. Another kind is also produced that tends toward red and
that congeals finer than the white, but its nature is more corrosive and less
pure and it is ofstronger power, though less pleasing to the sight. All the
others are red, somewhat chalky and small, no larger than beans; but their
nature is much more corrosive than the other, as is seen in their action.
This is also evident in their fiery color which implies hotness. They make a
parting acid that is much stronger and with more spirit and less phlegm.
These are the alums of Mytilene, and of Mazarron near Cartagena, both
very much alike in smallness and in color.
Each of these has its own particular stone. Those that I told you are
white are produced in a heavy and fixed white stone the color oftraver¬
tine. [3If] Alum is extracted from many stones of various colors and
natures; among others, from one the color oflimestone but softer. Until
it is roasted no stone gives sign either to the sight or to the taste that it
contains alum, except by a certain general and confused judgment that
comes to experienced men through practice. All good alum ores must be
somewhat hard in order to endure evaporation by fire. The best are those
that are heavy, very dense, and without holes or bubbles inside.
Like other minerals these always have near them on the surface their
marcasite, which is a stone called firestone. This is much harder to iron
tools and to fire when it does not contain stone that is good for making
alum, and its color is almost a rust with some mixture of white and yel¬
low. It is a stone that is useless for making alum because it does not roast in
the evaporating furnace with a low fire and does not become soft in the
weathering process as does good stone. And ifyou should try to make it
roast with a long fire so that it would become soft in the weathering, the
good stone would be spoiled first by passing beyond the necessary heat
hmit and the substance ofthe alum would be burned. Then it would only
make the alum more calcined, and it would be more muddy in the solu¬
tion caldron and in the congealing tubs. For this reason the chief masters
see that the stone is well selected before it is roasted, and when they have it
softened by weathering they see that it is sorted again before it is sent to
the solution vat.
The mines for excavating large quantities ofthis stone are made open,
and great cuts are courageously made with the help of many workers,
CHAPTER 6 ROCK ALUM lOI
always entering the mountain in such a way as to arrive at the center
where one hopes to find the greatest quantity and the greatest perfection
ofthis as of every other ore. Having removed the overburden ofthe soft
surface earth, a long cut is made and then, through this, the rock at the
bottom of the first incision is cut away as deeply as possible. For the
safety ofthe miners wooden beams are put up as the work proceeds, then
when it seems best all the stone is made to fall in a heap at one time by
taking out these beams. Then, breaking up the mass into many parts with
large iron hammers and sharp steel pikes and wedges, the good is sorted
from the useless and bad. The good ore is sent to the evaporating furnace
by horses and wagons and the bad is thrown over the slope in order to
clean out the mine and clear the way for the workers. Continuing always
in this way one enters inside, passing through the layers of rock in the
direction where the most ore is shown and also entering at the bottom
when it is seen that the vein ofore goes there or when it seems to you that
you have begun the mine too high. To conclude I tell you in a word that
whoever mines ores would do well to make every effort to bore into the
center ofthe mountains like a pater noster, * or as if by the work ofnecro¬
mancy or of giants. They should not only crack the mountains asunder
but also turn their very marrow upside down in order that what is inside
may be seen and the [32] sweemess of the fruit despoiled as soon as
possible.
Now it is not feasible to give the signs ofthe mountains where such ores
are found as is done with those of metals and some of the other semi¬
minerals, because they do not disdain to produce trees and herbs. Further¬
more there are often found in these very mountains or near them the ores
of other metals that, it is believed, are generated there on account ofits
decoction. Of the semiminerals, sulphur is often found together with
this, for sulphur is seen to be very adapted to it as is attested by the hot
waters ofthe baths in which the substances ofboth are mingled and which
are salubrious remedies to various ailments ofmankiud.
When you have found the ore either by chance or by art and have
mined and sorted it as I have told you, it is brought to the evaporating
furnaces. These are made in the same way as the ordinary ones for making
lime. The vaulted bottom to serve as a receptacle for the fire is made ofthe
same stone and all the rest is carefully filled up with it and finally the stone
is roasted, applying a continuous fire untd it is inflamed and has become
* Probably a colloquialism for an explosive mine.
102 PIROTECHNIA BOOK II
very red throughout and all the fumes have been exhaled. This will occur
within ten or twelve hours or more, depending on the nature ofthe stone.
Experienced men give the greatest attention to this operation because
almost the whole difficulty ofthe work lies in it. For even ifthe stone has a
good nature, ifit is not sufficiently roasted it becomes useless and bad and
it will not become soft on weathering. Ifit goes beyond the proper limits
with more fire the power and substance ofthe alum are burned. Thus, if
it either remains hard or becomes ashes, the quality ofthe stone cannot be
known, every effort and expense is lost, and the owner is in despair.
Therefore it is necessary to know the stones and their particular colors
with the judgment ofexperience and likewise the fires and the sulphurous
fumes depending on how they show themselves. It is not possible to de¬
scribe these effects in fuU, but you must be warned that it is necessary to
find the true method by doing it again and again many times, always
varying the method and then stopping at the best.
Now when this stone is well roasted with its proper fire and the fumes
have evaporated, the workers allow it to cool and then take it from the
furnace and put it in certain level yards. They arrange it in order hke a dry
wall, one piece above the other. They make a pile twenty or twenty-five
braccia long, four braccia wide, and from one and a halfto two braccia uni¬
formly high. Near it they arrange a launder of water from which they
wet it by means ofa wooden ladle. They do this night and morning, often
three times a day in summer, for forty days, and at the end ofthis time it
is found that all the stone that is disposed to weather has weathered and
has become fine and soft like an unguent or slaked lime. The stone whose
nature is to make white alum becomes very white, while the other is red¬
dish like the nature ofits ore.
Having now brought the stone to this point it is necessary, ifyou wish
to make it into alum, to have a spacious [321^] building, or at least a hut if
you wish to be economical; but it must be long and wide enough so that
it can hold one or more caldrons for dissolving the stone as well as that
number oftubs for congealing the water required by the size ofthe cal¬
drons. The caldrons are bricked in above, after their furnaces have been
first made underneath with grates ofstone that will not melt or calcine.
That you may understand well, I say that the caldrons are made ofbeaten
copper or of cast bronze and are near the wall, as you will hear. Onlv the
bottom, which has a diameter offour braccia, is of copper or bronze and
is of hght construction, joined with an edge around it Hke a pewter plate.
CHAPTER 6 ROCK ALUM 103
This is bricked in on top ofthe said furnace, about one and a half hraccia
above the grating to leave a place for the wood. One measures up from
the edge at the bottom in an ever-widening pyramidal form, hke a cis¬
tern, so that ifthe space at the bottom is three and a halfbraccia the mouth
is about five braccia; a little more or less is not important. Now this place,
walled and made four braccia inside, is plastered with a water-resisting
cement made of crushed snails,* lime, iron scale, egg whites, and oil.
When all these things are well mixed and incorporated the whole inside is
plastered, as I said, so that the water that is put there to boil may not run
out. On the edge a circle is made of wood, half a braccio thick and a
quarter high, which serves to support the poles when the alum boilers hft
the stone in keeping the water at the bottom of the boilers free from
earthy parts and hard undissolved materials.
In the same room or an adjoining one, thirty large tubs for every
caldron are made ofoak or cerris wood. In these the saturated water is put
to congeal. They are to be one-eighth braccio thick, two and a half braccia
high, three braccia long, and two braccia wide, well made with well￾fitted staves without iron nailings, but they are strengthened with two
bands like frames made of small beams, one at the top and one at the
bottom. They are well sealed with crosspieces and wedges so that nothing
can leak out. They are placed in a row along the walls and one or two
are also put in the middle if the room is large enough and if whoever
is doing the work wishes.
Now you have the alum stone weathered and well sorted, the caldrons
secure in place on the furnaces, and the tubs tight and arranged for making
alum. It is now further necessary first to fill the caldron with water carried
by a launder. This caldron will hold about two hundred some, and it is
made to boil by applying a strong fire underneath through the mouth of
the furnace. Then when it is boiling some ofthe weathered stone is taken
that has been made fine and almost an earth by bathing it with water, and
it is put in Httle by little, six or eight wheelbarrows at a time. While this is
done there are always four men on the edge ofthe boiler who keep stir¬
ring it and turning it in the water with four large wooden poles, with
handles, that reach to the bottom. [33] At each charging they take out
that which is hard and stony and not disposed to dissolve. Thus they
charge the whole amount ofstone that they wish in three or four charges,
* belici. “Snails” is used on the authority of Agricola, who translates into Latin as
umbilicis.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK n 104
waiting from time to time for three or four hours between charges, or
more or less time, so that the water that is somewhat cooled by the earth
thrown in it may return to boiling. Finally the caldron is cleared of un¬
roasted stones and the water freed ofevery earthiness.* When the experi¬
enced boilers see that the water is ready to congeal and that it is saturated
with the substance of alum, they take it out with certain long-handled
wooden vessels made like baskets, and they send it through certain pre¬
pared launders into the tubs to congeal. Thus they fill them all up one by
one, that is six for every boding, which hold the same as the caldron or a
httle more. They allow it to stand in these quietly so that it may congeal,
for four days ifit is winter and six ifit is summer.
At the end ofthat time all the water that is not congealed is poured out
through two holes which are made in the bottom ofthe tubs, but first as
much as possible of the clearest water is taken off and returned to the
boiler or else it is put in reserve in one or two ofthe six remaining tubs so
that it may be returned to the caldrons whenever you wish. This is always
the companion and magistery ofsucceeding boilings, although it could be
dispensed with as was done at the first boiling, but it is much better than
new and clear water to add to and to continue future boiHngs because it
already has alum substance in it.
When you have done this you will find alum in the tubs that you filled
with laden water, congealed from the middle all around, attached to the
wood. It will be thick and good according to the quantity and power of
the water and of the stone that you put in it, and either white or red
according to the quality ofits ore. That which contains some alum but is
mingled with the chalky earthiness at the bottom ofthe tub to a thickness
of about three or four dita from the surface must be thrown away for it is
useless. The fme material that is saved is returned to the caldron to boil
again accompanied by the stone. Thus the work is continued, alternating
the operations.
The alum that is found attached to the tubs is separated by breaking it
with a chisel or other iron tool. It is carried away in a little pannier and
washed in an overflowing reservoir ofwater. When it is washed it is put
again in its place in a covered storeroom so that it may come to its final
perfection.
* This applies only to the coarsest earth particles that will settle during ebullition. The
mixture is not filtered. The finer material stays in suspension and settles at the bottom of
the crystalhzing vats.
CHAPTER 7 ARSENIC, ORPIMENT, AND REALGAR 105
Nor must I fail to remind you that the advantage in such a process, as
in many others, lies in doing everything on a large scale, that is, with large
mines, a large number of tools and furnaces, with large caldrons, and
consequently with a large number of big tubs, because in this way a
greater quantity and a heavier and more beautiful alum is produced and,
in short, because the profits greatly surpass the expense. The worker
who would want to make a little is not aware how much more it involves,
for it is true that each one ofthe said operations requires many men and
much work.
Other kinds of aluminous substances* are found, such as the alum that
is called potash, that ofYemen, [331^] tartar, and feather alum. This is as
much as I have known how or have been able to teU you about both
natural and artificial alums.
THE SEVENTH CHAPTER
Concerning Arsenic, Orpiment, and Realgar.
Arsenic and orpiment are two mineral substances of a similar
/-A kind, and they are by nature pure, without admixture of other
^ Jx species. In regard to their apparent quahties we shall say that their
composition is scorched, well-purified earth; and because of a certain
subtlety and easy digestion they penetrate v^y easily into fused metals,
indeed they act in such a way that they corrupt and convert almost into
another nature any metal with which they find themselves. Orpiment and
arsenic act in almost the same way as do tin and mercury. With these the
fraudulent alchemists blanch copper, brass, and even lead to the whiteness
ofsilver. According to the physicians they are in fourth part hot and dry.
They are also corrosive because ofcertain powers; indeed, they are a most
powerful poison to the life of all things.
Arsenic is found in white and citrine colors. Orpiment seems to be a
separate thing, although both are formed in the same ore and both are in
lamellae or scales. These lamellae or folds are thinner than paper, in fact
* Alumen was used to apply to a host of crystalline substances with astringent properties,
and at times is practically synonymous with “salt.” Potash, for example, is cenere alume
catina, argol is alume difcccia.
el sameni (1540 edition), el lament (1558/9 edition), probably the alumen jameni of
Geber.
io6 PIROTECHNIA BOOK II
they lie one on the other like sheets oftalc and are easily separated if de¬
sired. They are also easily broken and powdered. The ore is found in
Hellespont and in Cappadocia. It is mined from very deep mines, for it is a
material that Nature hides from us, teaching us to leave it alone as harm¬
ful, but this does not cause the arrogant miners to leave it. On account of
its poisonous exhalation, after they have made very deep mines and have
found it, they pass through it with mouth and nose closed with a sponge
wet with vinegar ifthey wish to save their lives, and they do not remove
the earth around or upon that which they find.
These ores have no resemblance to the others, but are formed like river
pebbles and are very heavy so that it seems that they have a relationship
with metals and that Nature wished to make gold or silver. I cannot think
otherwise in consideration oftheir color and great weight, but while the
effects ofthe one ore are useful and benign, those ofthe other are the very
worst. But I also say this because I observe a great difference in their
natures. Some say that gold is extracted from orpiment.
I see that arsenic is white. For this reason experienced mineralogists say
that some ofthis is found in the company ofalmost all the metal ores and
that it is this which consumes and carries away in the smelting operations
the silver that they contain. In my opinion I really do not believe that it is
arsenic which does this, but I think that the substance is disposed and [34]
has begun to grow but is not yet converted into perfect ore because it is a
material that is badly mixed and worse fixed. It is enough for those men
who say this to call on or to adduce any reason in their favor, even ifthey
do not actually understand its effect, for they could not demonstrate
arsenic to anyone who wished to see it.
They also say, as I told you before, that orpiment and crystalline arsenic
are not at all ofthe same nature. And I must say, from all that I have seen
or that I think I have seen, that their composition is different. For one is
clear white or citrine; this indicates that it contains earthiness and wateri¬
ness; and the other is of a shining and beautiful golden color and ofsul¬
phurous substance as is attested by its yellow color and strong smell.
Both are pulverized and both calcine like antimony, and when they are
mixed together -through sublimation they make realgar, a thing of the
same nature. In the residue ofthis sublimation, or when they are roasted in
some other way, they leave a regulus [ofmetallic arsenic] very white like
silver but more brittle than glass. When arsenic, orpiment, and realgar are
fused and burned alone they evaporate away in fumes, but when they are
CHAPTER 8 MINERAL AND ARTIFICIAL SALTS 107
accompanied with other metals, they remain incorporated in them and if
these metals are not succored by the aid ofart they become so brittle that
they are useless.
Although these poisons ofwhich we are speaking have harmful quah￾ties, they are useful in many ways in the art ofmedicine. They say that it
is a remedy against the plague to carry them in a little bag over the heart,
that their fumes are beneficial to those who have asthma, and that they
work against chronic coughs or bloody sputum. Orpiment mixed with
lye and lime shaves every hairy spot without any cutting. With these
materials a very powerful corrosive for cauterizing is made. But consider¬
ing what these things are, that they are more known for their evil effects
and that they are to be held as very dangerous to life, I advise you not to
use them except by force ofnecessity.
THE EIGHTH CHAPTER
Concerning Ordinary Common Salt Obtainedfrom Mine or Water,
and Various Other Salts in General. Many are the salts produced by Nature in various regions and
parts of the world, as Pliny shows in his History. Likewise,
many are the differences among things that are salty and from
which salt can be extracted, as, for instance, all the lyes from any kind of
ashes and the urine of all animals. But because these are not things that
give men the useful elements necessary to life, I shall omit speaking of
them in detail with the exception ofsome ofthe more notable ones, and I
shall tell you that I find that men proceed in only two ways in order to
have a sufficiency for their needs. One is that of extracting it from the
salty waters of the sea itself, or from springs, with a certain technique
[34^] adapted to the places, either by congealing or by evaporation; and
the other is that of mining it from the earth. The latter salt is clear and
beautiful, and it is mined from mountains, already made by Nature in the
form ofstone without the aid of art.
All these salts have more or less efficacy* according to the fineness or
coarseness of their earthy elemental mixture, and according to the prov¬
inces and places where they are found generated. All are of an earthy
* e si cacia. We have conjectured eficacia.
io8 PIROTECHNIA BOOK n
elemental mixture, of a hot and dry nature, and of a salty taste; they are
biting and corrode with a certain power the metals and everything in
which they are placed. They have the property of preserving bodies that
are placed in them by drying them out; and they preserve aU things that
are disposed to corruption because ofhumidity and almost convert them
into themselves. They have no relationship with fire as has saltpeter, al¬
though they are hot and dry; indeed, leaping up, they flee fire like an
enemy when they feel it, as do sal ammoniac, sal alkali, rock salt, and
other similar salts.
In our regions they are of no use except to the alchemists or for some
medicinal purpose. But leaving aside their particular actions, for it would
take too long to tell ofthem, I shall tell you of the processes used in the
drying out and ofthe attraction ofthe fine particles which are in the salty
sea water by the power ofthe sun’s rays in the dog days, and likewise of
the methods used in boiling the waters that flow from wells or are drawn
therefrom. Of all these, the best salt is that which is clear and the most
cleansed ofearthiness.
Now to make salt from sea water this method is followed: Inland from
the seashore wherever there is a marsh, in level and spacious places where
no waves can arrive, four or six ditches are made about three braccia wide
and equally deep, about three hundred braccia long, and as much longer as
the level place extends. These are about one hundred braccia distant from
each other and two or three transverse ditches are made so that they cross
all ofthem. These are called master ditches, for they take the water from
the marsh and carry it to all the open squares, as those areas that lie be¬
tween the ditches are called, made like a chessboard over the whole plain.
The earth that has been dug up all around, either in leveling or lowering,
is made into a bank half a braccio high on both sides so that it forms a re¬
taining wall for the water that is put there; where this approaches the
principal ditch a little opening is made as an entrance. Another opening is
also made at the foot as an outlet for liberation ofthe water from the first
area so that one can be filled from another.
These areas can be used when they have been made well divided,
leveled, and cleared, and have been prepared. When you wish to begin,
open the entrance and let in the sea water of the marsh that has a certain
mixture offresh water, either from rivers or from rains, although it is said
that in Candia one can do without fresh water. AU the main ditches are
fiUed in order and then their outlets are opened to the first areas wliich all
CHAPTER 8 MINERAL AND ARTIFICIAL SALTS 109
fill up with water. It is allowed to congeal and form a covering through¬
out like a crust by the absorption ofsalt. Then all these areas are again [35]
carefully cleansed of all earthiness and are leveled. When the salt masters
wish to begin the work they again fill the first areas that are near the main
ditch with sea water and allow this water to stand until it becomes
somewhat thick. When they see this they have it passed into the second
area and keep it there a certain length oftime. Then they pass it into the
third and there they let it congeal completely. The empty areas are fiUed
up with the first and second waters as they proceed. In this way, if they
have good weather and a number of areas they make whatever quantity
ofsalt they wish.
While I was thinking about this, it occurred to me that I wished to tell
you how, in my opinion, such saltiness could arise in sea water, although I
know that my little authority will not give me the approval of learned
persons, nor will I tell it to you as a certainty. The opinion has been ex¬
pressed by the most divine Aristotle and by many other very worthy
men, as I beheve you know, that the solar rays dry out and burn certain
parts ofthe earth and hft them on high; then when these fall into the sea
they produce its saltiness. I do not oppose these words since they were said
by these men, but it is true that I do not understand why many lakes and
stiU waters that are inland do not become salty like sea water for the same
reasons, for they are ofsmaller quantity and are no less subjected to the
power of solar rays than those of the ocean. Those of the Caspian Sea
and of many other seas should also be salty. Furthermore I do not well
understand why one part ofthe sea is found more salty than another.
Wherefore, I think that this thing may easily come Irom a certain par¬
ticular quality of the salty earth which may give it this saltiness, since it
exists in many places under the sea waters. I say this for many reasons and
particularly when I bring before my mind’s eye the many mountains
with so many different sods, with so many colors and tastes that are veiled
and covered by the sea water. And I do not doubt that among these in the
sea there may be some with minerals ofpurest saltjust as there are on land.
As further testimony of tliis I have also heard that in Cyprus salt is pro¬
cured by fishing for it already made at the bottom of the sea, and that
likewise the sea with the commotion ofits waves throws salt on the beach
hke sand, as Pliny recounts ofthe country ofthe Barriani.
But there are many provinces wliich use no salt except that mined from
mountains, and they use no other artifice than the work ofmining it. In
no PIROTECHNIA BOOK n
added confirmation of this, besides the other places that could be men¬
tioned, I shall tell you what I remember having seen at Halle in the duchy
ofAustria. In that place there is a Httle stream offresh water that becomes
salty just by being made to cross through a mountain where there is a salt
mineral. When this water is placed in certain caldrons made of plates of
iron, about four hraccia in diameter, and placed on top ofone or more fur¬
naces, it shrinks through boiling and evaporation. Then with certain in¬
verted shovels made like wooden rakes [351^] a great quantity of very
white and pure salt is extracted as the work proceeds. It is put while still
moist in certain wooden pails; it becomes hard as marble with heat, and
cakes of half a soma are made from it. Not only the territory of Halle
where it is made but that whole province ofupper Germany is abundantly
supplied with this. The same thing happens in Volterra in Tuscany with a
salty water which is taken from certain wells. It is similarly put in certain
lead caldrons like those used for vitriol, and made to dry out by boiling.
From this they obtain a salt white as snow and in such quantities that not
only the city ofVolterra but also that ofFlorence with all its suburbs uses
no other salt but this. There are also many other places where this mineral￾water salt is found, and I could also tell you of one that is in the territory
of Siena near San Quirico. This is not very well known because it is not
highly valued on account ofthe abundance ofsea salt that they have.*
But ceasing now to speak of such phenomena and of those salts that
are called common, I wish to mention niter since it also has a place
among the salts, for it is not only salty and biting but it is also, like salt, hot
and dry. Pliny}' says that both natural and artificial niter is found. The
natural is mined in the form ofsalt mineral stone in Armenia, Africa, and
Egypt. The Armenian is white and laminated, with fibers like those of
antimony. It is said that a flowing nitrous water is found in many places,
which hardens hke salt when it is dried with fire. Its color tends toward
the redness ofiron and its taste is very salty with much bitterness. In short,
every natural niter is of a burned substance, salty and biting. But in these
* The Bologna edition (1678) has the following interpolation at this point: “In the
territory ofPiacenza, at the places called Salso Maggiore and Salso Minore, more than 100
wells are found; they are the property ofthe very honored Farnesi family.”
•f The nitnm of Pliny and other early writers was possibly an alkaline carbonate, but
this term, like alumen, was used very loosely. It was certainly not niter as we know it;
neither was sal ammoniacus, or hammoniacus, ammonium chloride, but probably an impure
sodium chloride. Biringuccio uses the words correctly in the modern sense except where
he is quoting ancient authors.
CHAPTER 8 III MINERAL AND ARTIFICIAL SALTS
days it is not transported to our regions and there is no naturalist who
knows it except by name.
Artificial niter has the same qualities but it is much more combustible
than that which is called natural. The ingenious moderns have recognized
that this exists in certain kinds ofsoil and with art they have found a way
to extract it from them. They have called it not niter [nitro] but saltpeter
[salnitro]. To conclude: the greatest quantity that is commonly extracted
and the best is from certain dry manures and from a certain earth that has
been dug up a long time and kept covered in a dry place where the rain
cannot wash out this substance. It must also have become a powder dis¬
posed by its dryness to receive a certain thickening from moist air that is
introduced there so that this earth becomes impregnated by the air with
this substance.
Saltpeter is also generated in moist caves; and it easily generates under
thick and calcareous walls, attached above like congealed icicles. It is also
made to appear and multiply artificially. In addition to those already men¬
tioned, I have also seen it extracted in Tuscany from a natural soil in the
neighborhood ofColie in Val d’Elsa, near a place called Le Rocchette, in a
mass of rock similar to a tuff of whitish color. A gentleman curious to
discover beautiful and useful things took some of this soil and had salt¬
peter extracted from it in the customary way, which I shall tell you about
in its own place.* [36] It is true that he did not extract enough to justify
the expense, and as saltpeter for gunpowder it had a weak action. It was
not strong like that which is taken from the aforesaid manure or from
earth that is moved after having stood for a long time, like that of
cemeteries, caves, old walls, as I have said, or from human latrines.
The nature ofsaltpeter is hot and dry like that ofniter or salt, but it also
contains an airy, fine, and light moistness which makes it combustible;
but I do not intend to tell you all the details ofthis here, since I shall keep
that for its own place when I shall speak of making powder for firing
guns, f I wished to tell you this little here in general since it is a thing that
is listed among the salts. As I told you, many kinds ofthese are found and
saltpeter is the strongest.
Armenian salt, or, as it is better called, sal ammoniac, surpasses saltpeter
in strength and power. They say that this comes from Cyrene or from
Armenia. Some say that it is a mineral from the mine, some that it is found
* See pages 405 to 409.
f See pages 413 to 416.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK n 112
generated like colocasia in certain very dry sands; some say that it is artifi¬
cial and made from ashes of certain plants; and some say that it is made
from the corruption of dirty wash water, rotten urine, and the perspira¬
tion ofmen.
Another kind of salt is found that is called stone salt or rock salt,
and this is a mineral clear as gems. Hungary has a great abundance ofthis.
Another artificial salt is made that is called glass salt or sal alkali.* This is
made from the lye of the ashes of an herb called saltwort or soda; some
say it is from hchen and some from fern. It is usually called potash. Lye
for making soap is made from this. By drying it the aforesaid salt for
making glass is obtained and it is therefore commonly called glass salt.
There are also other kinds of salt, like the Indian salt, which is black,
and sal alembroth which is a composition ofseveral lyes and urine made
strong with many things and compounded by the alchemists, who have
made it under many names and of different natures for use in their
works; and every day they find a way to make many of them. To con¬
clude: I am sure that salt can be extracted from anything that has a biting
sharpness and that is converted into ashes by fire.
THE NINTH CHAPTER
Concerning Calamine, Zaffre, and Manganese. CALAMINE is one ofthe semiminerals that have great similarity to
the metals. It is a very heavy mineral earth of a yellowish color. It
is found in Germany near the lead mines and in Italy in a mountain
between Milan and Como. It is also found, as I have heard, in other places,
as at Fosini in the territory of Siena. I believe that it is almost certain that
some exists there because there are many other kinds of minerals there¬
about, although none is mined there in these times. But this does not
mean that it could not be mined or that there is not some there that is real.
Someone says that he tried to melt what he could find with copper [36f]
* Sal alkali (Italian, sal alcali) was the crude alkali carbonate obtained from ashes. Wood
ashes gave chiefly potash, but certain herbs and other plants gave a high proportion of
sodium carbonate and were preferred for glassmaking.
f lalcbro, 1558/9 edition I’alemhrot. This was mercuric ammonium chloride made by
distillation ofsal ammoniac and corrosive subhmate. Alchemists sometimes regarded it as
the universal solvent.
CHAPTER 9 CALAMINE, ZAFFRE, AND MANGANESE 113
but it did not turn out to be very good. This may have happened because
it was mined from the surface and if it had been mined from within it
would perhaps have been better; or it may have been because it was not
given enough fire.
Now ceasing to speak of these things, I want you to know that this is
the earth I spoke of before that colors copper yellow like gold. I believe
that in its nature it is of a hot and dry quality like marcasite, as experience
shows, because it does not melt alone by itself but burns and all its
substance goes off in smoke. It melts in the company of copper, which
increases in weight 8 per cent, an operation that I have described to you in
the method of making brass. I do not know that it is good for anything
else; since it is a thing that is little known, I can say but little about it.
Zaffre*is likewise another semimineral as heavy as metal. It does not
melt by itself, but in the company ofvitreous thiugs it becomes Hke water
and colors them blue. Thus whoever wishes to tint glass or to paint glazed
earthenware vases a blue color uses it. At the pleasure ofthe artist it serves
also as black in the above operations ifthe vitreous things are laden with a
greater quantity than is required for blue.
Another semimineral ofsimilar nature is also found. This is called man¬
ganese. "j* In addition to that which comes from Germany it is also found in
Tuscany in the mountains ofViterbo. Some ofa dark rusty color is found
on the shore at Salo at Montecastello near Cara. It does not melt in such a
way that metal can be extracted from it, but when it accompanies things
disposed to vitrify it colors them a beautiful violet, and with it glass
makers color their glasses to that shade. The masters making earthenware
vessels also use it when they wish to show their paintings in a violet color.
It also has in it a certain property which cleanses melted glass when it is
mixed with it and causes it to change from green or yellow to white.
With a prolonged fire it evaporates like lead in the cupeling hearth. I shall
tell you more of this in detail when I speak of glass making and later of
pottery making.
* Biringuccio apparently knew only the prepared substance (roasted cobalt ore, often
mixed with sand to render it self-fluxing) since he does not describe its occurrence or
treatment. Nowhere does he mention cobalt, a word of uncertain meaning at the time.
f This refers to the native oxide, pyrolusite.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK U II4
THE TENTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Lodestone and Its Various Effects and Virtues. I AM sure that you understand that ofall the things created by the most
high God Himself or by Nature at His command, not one—even
though it be an atom or the smallest worm—has been produced with¬
out some particular gift. And if we do not always discern this in every
thing, the cause lies in our defective vision, in our little knowledge, and in
our lack of careful thought concerning the necessity of seeking hidden
things. Certainly those things that have such inner powers, like herbs,
fruits, roots, animals, precious stones, metals, or other stones, can be un¬
derstood only through oft-repeated experience. [37] Others do not need
so much knowledge and belief for their powers are obvious and shown
to us at all times by their effects. They reveal themselves to us through
the sense of sight by their splendor and variety of colors, through
the sense of smell by their odors, through the sense of hearing by the
melody ofthe harmonious or unpleasantly discordant repercussions ofthe
air. They likewise manifest themselves by their softness or harshness. As
you see, all those things, according to their limits, are conveyed by the
ordinary senses to the mind, by whose distinctions all their species, both
harmful and beneficial, are discerned. Then they are reviewed by the
judgment in all their degrees ofperfection and imperfection, so that who¬
ever seeks them with careful study or with experience often finds them.
Now, in order to shorten this discourse, since I wished to speak to you
oflodestone and its properties, I tell you that it is one ofthose things that
show their apparent effects to our sight by a particular virtue hidden in
such a way that its cause, as far as I know, has never been known to the
very wise natural speculators who have spoken on every other subject.
Thus one who considers its actions carefully must surely marvel, for it
appears that Nature has put into this stone a certain spirit of vivacity, so
that it seems to have—I would like to say—hands, although they are not
seen. For I see that it not only attracts iron but also takes hold ofit and
keeps it attached to itself. This action is certainly great enough to bear
certain witness to the virtues possessed by other created things that do not
manifest their powers to the external senses.
In order not to prolong this discussion, I tell you the following. This
stone is found in various places and ofdifferent colors and properties. The
CHAPTER 10 THE LODESTONE 115
best known is that which has the property ofattraction. Albertus Magnus
writes in his book De rnineralibus in the chapter De ligaturis et suspensionibus
lapidum that one kind is found that has the property not only ofattracting
iron but also of repelling it as its opposite. He also says that some lode￾stones are found that have the property of attracting not iron, but gold,
while some attract copper and some lead and tin. Some others attract
human flesh and bones, others hairs, and still others fish from the water. I
say also that there is one kind called lapis olearea that attracts oil, another
called lapis aceti that attracts vinegar, and still another that attracts wine.
Thus there is lacking only the one that produces greens and salt for men,
so that, possessing it, they could make a salad wherever they might be,
and having a plate and a little bread, they could have a fine meal!
But let us leave these fabulous tales. I say that we know very well that
kind of lodestone that is in our regions, that we see every day, and that
sailors use in their voyages in order to return the enfeebled compass to the
sign for observing our pole, from which some say this particular virtue
proceeds. This is of a dark rusty color and is very [371^] heavy. It is a
mineral material although it does not melt,* and since it does not melt it
cannot be said that it contains metal. Wherefore I will say, regarding the
question ofits beginnings, that it is generated from the common compo¬
sition of stones with a good deal of metallic elemental mixture. This is
clearly shown by its color as well as by its great weight and by the fact of
its birth among iron ore. For the same reasons that Nature wishes that
like always hunger for like, it appears that this hungers for iron, and for
other things if it be true. I once saw a piece of this that had such a great
desire for iron that, since it could not draw the disproportionate quantity
of the iron to itself by its own force, it became almost alive, moved
toward it and itselfstarted offto visit the iron in order to bejoined with it.
They say that some lodestone is found that has a white color and that
this has the property of attracting flesh, because it is very efficacious in
facilitating the parturitions of women ifit is tied to the left thigh of the
pregnant in childbirth. Theyf also say that whoever wears it so that it
touches the skin has the power of inducing great benevolence in the
minds of persons. This is particularly true ifit has engraved on it the con¬
junction of Venus and Mars with their symbols and images. This can
jndeed be believed—if the person is one who merits it. It is also said that
* Or “cannot be smelted.”
I The remainder ofthis paragraph is omitted from the 1678 edition.
Ii6 PIROTECHNIA BOOK n
various other images of celestial conjunctions are engraved thereon, some
ofwhich are favorable to the acquisition oflearning, some science, others
benevolence, and others authority and honors. It would thus be a fine
thing to have them all in order to appease our appetites with little effort.
According to Pliny the ancients mixed this thing with niter in the first
discoveries of glass. He also says that a great quantity ofit with a greater
efficacy is found in the Indian sea where there is a place where ships that
are built with iron nails cannot pass, for the lodestone breaks them apart
by drawing the nails out ofthe wooden beams with its great power and,
opening up the ships, sinks them to the bottom ofthe sea.
Some say that the tomb ofBacchus was made with iron fastenings and
set in a certain place in a temple built oflodestone through whose powers it
was held suspended in the air. The same is said ofthe tomb ofMohammed.
Most kinds, indeed all except one, have the property of attraction. But
it is said that all lose their power and virtue every time that a rough dia¬
mond comes near them or when the lodestone and the thing it attracts are
bathed in goat’s milk or garlic juice, or are greased with oil.
Much lodestone is found in our regions in the island ofElba. These are
very powerful pieces.
Now, since this is a thing that, according to my limited knowledge, is
useful only to marine service or for Httle portable sundials, I do not intend
to say anything more about it, although it is well to consider its effects.
THE ELEVENTH CHAPTER
Concerning Ochre, Bole, Emery, and Borax. OCHRE is a semimineral composed by Nature of earth and a tinc¬
ture of yellow caused by a fumosity oflead ore. By itselfit is a
material without any [38] metal, although when it is used in
smelting it helps to melt the harsh and sour ores ofmetals. I do not know
that it has any other use, except to painters.
Bole is also a red viscous earth which has a very astringent and drying
nature. It has no very apparent smell or taste, and I think that the cause of
its redness lies in the fumosities ofiron ore, for it is a companion to this
and is found in its mines. It is an efficacious medicine against any poison
and in this capacity has an action Hke terra sigillata* or perhaps better. In
* “Sealed earth,” a form ofrefined ferruginous earth, ground and made in cakes which
were stamped with a seal to indicate their quaUty. Used as a painter’s color.
CHAPTER 12 AZURE AND GREEN AZURE 117
ancient times it usually came to us from Armenia; today it is mined in
Portugal, in Germany (where it is ofa very good quality) and in the island
ofElba in great abundance. Physicians and surgeons use it in astringent and
drying medicines; painters also use it for applying gold in the decoration
of their paintings; and potters use it in the red color with which they
paint, when it is mixed with clay.
Emery is also a semimineral composed in the form ofhardest stone, ofa
black color. In powdered form it is rough, even though it be fine, and it
has a corrosive effect on whatever it is rubbed against. All kinds ofjewels
and hard stones are ground, worked, and engraved with it. It also cleans
every spot and rustiness from iron. Glass is cut with the sharp edge of a
broken piece by rubbing it several times on whichever side is chosen.
Borax is of two kinds, natural and artificial. Natural borax is a clear
fusible stone of a form like that of sugar candy or rock salt, although
Pliny says that it was green* and that it served not only to solder gold but
also for painting. It is mined today in Germany. It is easily crushed and
pulverized. Artificial borax is made from rock alum and sal ammoniac, j"
Both kinds have the property of facilitating the melting of metals, and
they unite and solder whatever they are put on. For this reason jewelers
make great use ofit both in melting gold and in making the solder run in
those works in which it is required to attach and solder many pieces to¬
gether.
THE TWELFTH CHAPTER
Concerning Azure and Green Azure. SINCE I have begun to teU you of the semiminerals that serve as
colors, I wish to teU you of azure and green azure, so that you may
know what they are. I tell you first that there are two kinds ofazure,
one called ultramarine blue by painters, and the other German blue. Ultra-
* Tills confusion arose from the fact that the term chrysocolla was used to refer to both
borax and various green copper minerals. The word is of Greek origin and means some¬
thing to make gold run, hence came to be applied loosely either to a flux or a solder. The
use of finely divided malachite, verdigris, or copper scale for soldering gold was quite
common, for these substances are easily reduced by a flame to metallic copper, which
forms a low melting-point alloy with the gold and so joins it.
j- This reference is hard to understand. Sal ammoniac was used as a flux and thus might
be confused with borax, but compounding it with alum would hardly improve it.
ii8 PIROTECHNIA BOOK II
marine is that which is made from the stone called lapis lazuli, which is the
true matrix of gold ore. This is ground and washed so that it becomes of
an impalpable fineness. Then it is brought back to its live and beautiful
color by means ofcertain pastilles made ofgum. * It is refined and dried of
all moisture. This is the most highly esteemed ofall. It brings a good price
from painters according to its color and fineness, because it not only gives
great beauty to the painting but it also resists fire and water, torments that
other colors [38^] cannot endure.
The so-called German azuref is a tincture ofthe fumosity ofsilver ore.
It is collected by cleanly scraping on the stones where the exhalation is
seen to have been formed. This is washed and ground as fine as possible.
Similarly green azuref is an exhalation of copper ore that has admixture
ofsilver. This is more or less green or blue according to the quantity ofthe
mixture and more or less abundant according to the powerful exhalation
of the ore. It also is gathered with care from the colored stones and is
cleansed and made fine by washing and grinding. That which is the finest
and ofthe loveliest color is the most highly esteemed by the master paint¬
ers. I have wished to give you this briefnotice about these things because
they are mineral and in order that you may know what they are when you
see them.
* The ground lapis lazuli was worked into cakes, or pastilles as they were called, with a
mixture of rosin, wax, oil, and pitch, and, after aging, was kneaded again under warm
water or lye. The blue pigment particles floated out in suspension in the water, to be col¬
lected later by sedimentation, leaving the earthy materials behind in the paste. This is an
interesting forerunner ofthe modern flotation process for the concentration of minerals.
The process is described in several fourteenth- and fifteenth-century manuscripts on
colors. See, for example, the Bologna manuscript ofMrs. Merrifield [Original Treatises on
the Arts of Painting, London, 1849), the Cennini MS., Il lihro dell’arte (English translation
by Daniel Thompson, 1933), and several listed by Daniel V. Thompson,Jr. (“Trial index
to some unpublished sources for the history of mediaeval craftsmanship,” Speculum,
1935. 10, 410-431.) A translation of a Persian MS. of 1491 and a discussion of the prin¬
ciples involved in various modifications ofthe process are given by Gaudin [Engineering &
MiningJournal, 1940, 141 [10], 43-44). The earliest printed description seems to be that of
the pseudonymous Alessio Piemontese in his Secreti, first published in 1555. This was a
very popular work and for two centuries “The Secrets of Alexis” went through many
editions in Italian, Latin, English, and French. A French translation first appeared in 1557
and an English one from this in 1559/60. The book is an extensive collection of chemical,
medical, metallurgical, and cosmetic recipes, some of which are of considerable interest.
The various editions differ appreciably in their contents. The description of making
ultramarine was copied by Neri (1612) in his famous work on glass.
•J Supposedly azurite, basic copper carbonate.
i Probably malachite.
CHAPTER 13 ROCK CRYSTAL AND OTHER GEMS 119
THE THIRTEENTH CHAPTER
Concerning Rock Crystal and All
Important Gems in General. Having previously told you about lodestone, azure, emery, and
manganese, things that perhaps belong more properly to the
stones than to the metals, the desire has come to me to describe
rock crystal as well and, with this, some of the better-known gems, al¬
though they are things that are not classified with metals, as far as I know,
or even with the semiminerals. In truth, they are neither one nor the
other, but they are stones and have the nature ofstones. But let them be
what they may, in order to avoid straying from the subject we have
begun, we shall say that they have mineral properties in their species, as
for instance, in respect to their colors. It would seem an error to me if,
while I am giving you information on so many other useful things, I did
not give you this as well, if for no other reason than because it is a fine
accomplishment for a gentleman to have some knowledge concerning
gems.
Thus since I have proposed to do this, beginning to speak of crystal, I
tell you that it is a lustrous, transparent, and limpid stone, composed by
Nature with a predominance ofwateriness. Thus, contrary to the order of
natural things, it has been believed by many that Nature has generated it
ofpure water by means ofa powerful and continuous coldness that always
exists in those mountains and places where it is found, for the waters and
snows can never melt there because ofthe great cold. They have tried to
prove this opinion oftheirs by saying that crystal still retains the nature of
frozen water, and that this is shown not only in its appearance but also in
the fact that, like ice, it floats without sinking to the bottom when it is put
in water. They also say that it is customary to put it under the tongues of
the thirsty on account of the coldness and moistness which it gives, and
that it quenches the dryness of their thirst.
But even ifall these things were true, as they are not, they do not upon
consideration bring us to the conclusion that it is water, because the dia¬
mond and the beryl would do the same. Therefore it does not seem to me
credible [39] that it is as they claim, for it is a stone generated as such by
Nature. And then, ifthis were true in those places where it rains often and
many snows are formed, and these should freeze and never melt but
120 PIROTECHNIA BOOK n
should continually be converted into crystal, there would be many more
mountains of crystal than ofstone.
Furthermore, I know that every body of the inferior order of things
must be composed offour elements. Therefore ifthis were pure water it
could not stand by itself, even though they should tell me that pure water
is not found on the earth. For this reason I tell you, in conclusion, that if
this composition is water, it is necessary that Nature dry it ofits moismess
or that she add some earthy part to petrify it, and the other two superior
elements contribute, even though only a small quantity ofthese is needed.
Beheving firmly that every white thing is watery or airy, I shall say that
crystal is of a watery substance with subtle earthiness and with much air
and little fire; and that therefore it is cold and it floats in water, ifthis be
true. The same must be said ofthe other gems since they too are watery,
but their natures vary as there is more or less of the mixture of the ele¬
mental substances, although their particular material, as that ofthe metals,
is watery. Yet these stones do not melt like those metals nor does crystal
dissolve in fire as ice does into water, but this would happen if the ele¬
mental mixture ofthe other substances did not impede it. However, let it
be enough ofthis subject that you take this universal and deduce from it
another more limited universal which contains a composition ofmaterials
ofmuch greater perfection.
There are two kinds of gems, that is, the transparent and the opaque,
between which there is a certain difference of species and of perfection,
although both belong to the order of stones. Within its species each has
its own perfection. In the grades ofstones there is the perfection proper to
the porphyries, the serpentines, touchstones, granites, slates, sandstones,
and similar ones, and, among the metals there is that of gold, silver, cop¬
per, lead, and others. Similarly, among the transparent gems there is the
perfection proper to the diamond, the ruby, the emerald, the sapphire,
and the other kinds, and likewise among the opaque gems the sardonyx,
the nicolo, the agate, and every other one according to their differences.
If I wished to speak to you of each one in detail, I would make this
volume too large, although after thinking about it, I have decided to say
something since I wish to make their intrinsic peculiarities understood.
Hence I say that it seems to me that it is much more difficult to understand
them than the metals, both because there are many species and because
they have certain elemental mixtures which are, in my opinion, incom¬
prehensible, as the sparkling transparency ofthe diamond, the full redness
CHAPTER 13 ROCK CRYSTAL AND OTHER GEMS 121
of the ruby, the greenness of the emerald, and similar colors. Writers
usually treat of these things only in general, saying that all stones, hke
everytiling else, are produced by Nature of a watery earthy substance
with the necessary additions of elements according to the species of the
things.
It appears that stones [39^] are produced by Nature in three species, and
each species is divided into many kinds according to the elemental mix¬
tures. We shall say that the first is that ofstones having the greatest earthi¬
ness; these are those ofthe mountains, which are common in all places. The
second is a kind between the said common stones and the lustrous precious
stones which are the opaque gems. The third, above all, are the trans¬
parent and lustrous ones. I shall omit speaking ofthe first. In the second,
one must consider the hardness and perfection oftheir colors and virtues;
of these some are white like the cameo, some others black, others red,
others green, and some others mixed in color, aU separated one from the
other by their elemental mixtures. The same thing occurs in the third
species oftransparent stones. The first ofthese is the diamond, a stone that
in comparison with the others is small and very lustrous, indeed brilliant,
and of an incomparable hardness.
But before I go on, I say that every whiteness that is found in stones is
caused by white and pure materials, the limpidity by a great quantity
of very white earthy and watery parts joined together and the brilliant
luster comes from great hardness in the lustrous earthy material. Every
whiteness is a substance of air or water congealed in the thing by a certain
inclination and power of very pure materials which are joined with that
earthy material as closely as lines. With these, then, well pressed together
and bound in mixture, are formed the diamond, the beryl, and every
other lustrous colorless stone, but with more or less perfection according
to the excess or lack of the materials while they are being compounded.
Then they proceed to assume various colors according to the place and the
proximity of minerals. In those that are far from minerals, like beryl,
crystal, chalcedony, and alabaster (which are stones that are more watery
and airy than the diamond), the contrary occurs, and they remain in the
state in which they are formed. But because these are matters of opinion
and occasion long discussions I shall leave them aside.
But, so that I may not omit teUing you something ofmy own opinion,
I shall say to you that I only beheve that Nature has created such things on
the earth in envy ofthe heavens, in order to emulate its things.Just as we see
122 PIROTECHNIA BOOK II
that in the sea she has imitated every kind ofland animal, so also has she
produced these stones in the likeness of the stars, as we see in their great
variety of colors and in many effects of their virtues. That you may see
that this is true, consider a little the splendor, the hardness, and the beauty
of a diamond, or that of a ruby, emerald, or any other gem, and likewise
the virtues and powers that it is said and that it must be believed they pos¬
sess. Surely you will see that they surpass gold and every other mineral.
Therefore one should search for them in order to possess them as precious
and divine things.
Now leaving the discussion ofsuch unusual things, I have in mind to
tell you in detail about some other gemsjust as I did about crystal, begin￾ning by speaking ofthe diamond. This, as you know, is an angular little
stone, lustrous, transparent, and very hard. According to hearsay, the
largest that has yet been found in the world is [40] a little less than half a
walnut and, as I understand, this is at the present time in the possession of
Soliman, emperor of the Turks. Another in Rome, which His Holiness
N[icolas] had in the folds of his papal mantle, is only slightly smaller than
the aforesaid. The quality of this stone is to be harder and much more
lustrous and transparent than any other thing. Ifthe skin ofits earthiness is
cleaned with art and then it is given its polish, it becomes very brilliant
when a lustrous black color is placed underneath. Fire does not soften its
extreme hardness nor can it be cut with any tool. Thus it is invincible by
any created thing, with the exception ofthe hot blood ofa he-goat. In the
latter it can be broken and cut, particularly ifthe animal had drunk wine
and eaten parsley and castorberry bush for several days beforehand. The
art of grinding it and of making it lustrous and reducing it to a square,
oblong, or angular form is by a long and continued rubbing with another
diamond and ofworking it with its own powder, on a wheel oftempered
steel, then ofcopper and then oflead, depending on the degree [ofpolish]
that is to be attained.
Diamonds originate in India, in Arabia, and in Ethiopia in gold mines,
also they are found by those who wash the sands ofthose rivers. Some are
also found in Macedonia and in the island of Cyprus, but these are of a
darker color, although they are transparent, and they are less hard than
the others. All that are found are ofsix kinds according to this order: of
these some are clear and some have a somewhat darker shadow, and are
very hard; the third are somewhat yellowish; the fourth have a violet
color; the fifth are those that tend toward green; and the sixth those that
CHAPTER 13 ROCK CRYSTAL AND OTHER GEMS 123
tend toward red. The form of all these that are found is made oftwo little
pyramids joined with six very exact facets, so that one forms the base of
the other.
Many particular virtues are attributed to diamonds, and these are the
more powerful the larger the piece is and the more unblemished it is.
This is particularly true, it is said, ifit is mounted in gold or steel and worn
on the finger or tied around the neck. The first virtue they say is that it
attracts possessions to its owner and makes him rich; ifit is large his rich¬
ness is apparent; it also makes him pleasing and lovable and makes him
safe from all evil things and protects him from poison. Pregnant women
who wear it tied to their right arm will, ifit is rough, carry their child to
the ripeness of the day of birth. With its presence it stops the virtue of
lodestone so that it cannot attract iron, and ifit has already attracted and
taken hold ofit, the diamond makes it let go. With its hardness it cuts all
other gems and pierces them and reduces them to the form desired by the
artificer, and it is a great aid to the engravers ofjewels.
Physicians say that, because ofits effects, it has the nature of cold and
dry earth itself. Many have believed and do believe that if it is taken as
food it is a deadly poison; but they are in error in this, although it is very
true that it prepares for and brings about death ifit is taken, not because it
is a poison but because of its contusion of the stomach. For Nature can
never remove it from anyone who has taken it on account ofits heaviness;
and, thus corrupting, it pierces the stomach in almost the same way as
ground glass. I wanted to tell you this in order to exonerate it with you of
the reputation that it commonly has as a malevolent thing.
[401^] After the diamond comes the ruby. Like many others they call it a
carbuncle when it is a larger piece than usual, in order to increase its im¬
portance. This belongs to that kind oftransparent stones that are lustrous.
Its color is full red, dry, and not unctuous, but very brilliant, and it is very
pleasing to the sight on account ofits great brilliance and color. It is very
hard but not so hard as the diamond; speculative physicians, judging by
its color, say that its nature is hot. It is found in Libya and in India. In order
that its color may be shown to better advantage it is prepared in the form
of little square tablets that are not very thick. This is done by rubbing it
with emery on a lead wheel. Its virtues are many. The principal ones are
gladdening the heart and protecting against every poison and particularly
against air that is corrupted by pestilential vapor. They say that the matrix
where it is generated is the balas ruby and this, too, is a red stone, but
124 PIROTECHNIA BOOK U
compared with the ruby it has less color and often has gray flecks.
They say that its brother is the garnet, which is of a very similar color
but it is less dry and not so hard. In my opinion it is ofmuch less perfec¬
tion, although some say that it surpasses the ruby. I think that this may
perhaps be true as to some particular virtue in the same way as some be¬
lieve that the species ofthe hyacinths surpass rubies as well as every other
gem. Nevertheless, in my opinion, they do not approach it either in price
or in beauty. In these as in aU other gems the diminution ofbeauty and of
price occurs when their clearness is shadowed by some darkness or white¬
ness which, hke a cloud, often spreads inwards in some part or throughout
so that it is deprived ofthe quantity or evenness of color which in aU of
them is a thing that is very apparent.
The emerald, in my general knowledge, should be named, ifnot in the
second, certainly in the third place among gems; and I also know that it is
a very notable thing. I tell you that it is a highly esteemed precious stone,
that is transparent, hard, and very brilliant, endowed with a green color
with which no other greenness can be compared. This brilliant green
penetrates the eyes ofmen and with the aid ofits pleasing quahties restores
them when they are weary.
Expert lapidaries say that the emerald is found in twelve kinds, but
among the best are those that are the purest green, the hardest, the least
greasy, and also the most brilliant. I beheve that they mean to say that all
kinds of lustrous green stones belong to this group, according to their
greater or lesser perfection, and that the degrees of difference result from
the regions or places where they are found, or that what happens in the
case of every other thing of greater or lesser perfection happens to them.
They say that it has many virtues. The first ofthese is that it is an excel¬
lent remedy for every kind of poison if as much as eight barley grains be
taken before the poison has had full effect on the patient. They say that
without any doubt it cures without the loss ofnail or hair or peehng offof
skin which results from all the others. It prevents epilepsy [41] if worn
around the throat. Ifit is worn in gold on the finger and looked at often,
it restores and strengthens the sight. They also say that it makes for a good
mem.ory and that it keeps a man healthy and happy and that it opposes
excesses. It is very true that ifit is worn during coitus it breaks in many
pieces.
Where emeralds are found or whence they come into our regions I do
not know for certain. Some writers say that the best ones are found in the
CHAPTER 13 ROCK CRYSTAL AND OTHER GEMS 125
griffin’s nest; others say that they come from Scythia; others say from
Bactria; others say from the hills of Egypt; and some say from Arabia.
But it must be beheved that all these strange things, wherever they may
come from, are colored by the virtue and power of minerals of copper.
They also say that they are found in Cyprus and that in the same piece,
however small it may be, there are some that are more or less green,
others that have a certain unctuous greenness that makes them dark and
opaque, and some others that have it more diffused throughout. Thus one
can easily find different grades in all the species, and perhaps to an even
greater degree than has been said.
All emeralds are small stones of various shapes. Most of them are cut
square and flat, in tablets. They are made very lustrous with emery and
tripoli like most other gems and, in addition, so that they may better
show their greenness, they are cut out underneath, somewhat toward the
middle, so that the air may make reflections and may affect it equally
throughout. Physicians say that the emerald is ofa cold and dry nature.
The sapphire, like other gems, is a little stone that is lustrous and trans¬
parent, with considerable hardness. It is of a blue color like the sky when
we see it most beautifully clear. Many kinds are also found of this. The
best are the oriental ones. It can be made to lose its color by keeping it in
molten gold over a fire for twenty-four hours. With these baths they dis¬
guise it in the form of a diamond and try to deceive people.
It still remains to tell you ofseveral others which follow these in value,
but I shall omit them since it would take too long to tell you about them
all in detail, particularly because you will be able to understand much by
yourselffrom the little description that I have given you. However, God
willing, I promise to tell you about all the stones andjewels and to make a
special treatise for these, for it is a very useful and honorable thing for a
gentleman to have knowledge ofthese things and to know how to talk of
them.*
* One suspects that the requirements of the Honorable Gentleman alone prompts
Biringuccio to include anything about gems. He never carried out Ins promise to write a
treatise on them. He shows a degree of credulity in this chapter that is in marked contrast
with his treatment ofthe metals.
126 PIROTECHNIA BOOK n
THE FOURTEENTH CHAPTER
Concerning Glass and All the Other Semiminerals
in General. UNDER the same justification that I spoke to you in the preceding
chapter on crystal and some other gems, I can now speak much
better and with much greater reason of glass, since it is one ofthe
effects and peculiar fruits of the art of fire. Every product that is found
[411^] in the interior ofthe earth is either stone or metal or one ofthe semi¬
minerals, and glass, as is seen, resembles them all, although in all respects
it is dependent upon art. Therefore it seems to me that before coming to
the discussion of the arts themselves, I must treat of this very beautiful
composition created by art and number it with the semiminerals.
Thus in this chapter I shall speak to you of glass, not as a proper semi¬
mineral, nor yet as a metal, but as a fusible material that is almost made
mineral by art and by the power and virtue offire, born from the specula¬
tion of good alchemistic savants, through whose efforts it imitates the
metals on one hand and the transparency and splendor of gems on the
other. Certainly it is a very beautiful thing and one that should not be left
buried in silence, in consideration first of how great a thing art has been
able to discover, and then because its beauty makes it such a pleasing thing
for making drinking glasses and an infinite number of other ornamental
things that satisfy the desires ofman.
I shall begin, then, by telling you, to the credit ofthe alchemists, how I
believe that this thing was found through their desire to make gems; for
when they could not bring them to perfection (as also happened with the
metals) they made this beautiful and attractive product, glass. However,
Pliny says that it was found by chance in Syria at the mouth ofthe Belus
River by certain merchants who were driven there by the fortunes ofthe
sea and forced to stop and disembark there for a time in order to eat. In
cooking the food they saw the rocks ofthat place converted into a flow¬
ing, lustrous material. And as they thought about this, it seemed beautiful
to them, and when they went away they carried some stones and plants
with them. Thus they gave beginning to glass making.
But now leaving this discussion it does not matter how it may have
been discovered, whether by merchants or by ingenious alchemists. Art is
that which has given it being, through many experiments and by addition
GLASS CHAPTER 14 127
or subtraction at will; for, as is seen, the ancients added lodestone, niter,
crystal, and various lustrous stones, and the modems in imitating them
have, it seems to me, done so much that one can perhaps believe it would
be difficult to go any farther with this art. For, as is evident, an infinite
number ofbeautiful things are made from it.
It is a material whose body, as we see, is transparent and lustrous, and it
is colored with substances or traces ofmetal to any kind ofdesired color,
in such a way that with the beauty of gems it deceives the judgment of
the eyes ofvery experienced men. Ifby chance it were possible for genius
to do so much that a way could be found to make it unbreakable, as it is
said was found in the time ofthe Emperor Tiberius, it would be a thing to
esteem for its beauty, for its works, and for the ease ofmanipulation more
than any metal, even gold, in its transparency and lustrous quality. Fur¬
thermore, glass is a thing that is very pure in its quality, and in its own
being it is almost incorruptible. Rust does not issue from it. It exhales no
odor or taste whatsoever, and it puts forth no such tincture as results from
the bad elemental mixtures of metals. Certainly, in this [42] art surpasses
Nature; for although she has produced crystal and all the other kinds of
gems that are much more beautiful than this, no way has yet been found
for working with these as is done with glass.
The method of composing glass and then of working it is as follows.
First one takes some ashes made from the herb saltwort that comes from
Syria; and I also understand from the Reverend Bishop ofMagalone that
some comes from the place ofhis bishopric on the Rhone in France. Now
some say that this ash is made from fern and some from lichen: which of
these it may be does not matter here. The quantity desired by the workers
is taken and boiling water poured on it; this makes a very strong lye, and
it gradually becomes thickened and clear by boiling. It is then dried so
that it makes a very sharp salt. This is the salt that I told you before in the
discussion ofsalts is called glass salt or sal alkali.
A certain quantity ofthis is taken, then some of those sparkling white
river stones that are called pebbles and that are clear and breakable and
have a certain resemblance to glass. When it is impossible to have these,
take in their place a certain white mine sand that has a certain rough harsh¬
ness. Of whichever ofthese is taken, two parts are put to one part ofthe
said salt and a certain quantity ofmanganese according to your discretion.
Then put all these things mixed together into a reverberatory furnace
made for this purpose, three hraccia long, two wide, and one high, and
128 PIROTECHNIA BOOK II
apply enough of the strong flames of a wood fire by means of the re¬
verberator, so that the composition is melted well and is converted all into
one mass. When this operation has been done, it is cooled and then taken
out and broken into pieces. This is the material ofglass that is called frit by
the workers, for it is a material that has been converted into the form of
glass but is poorly purified.
Now in order to complete the purification, a round furnace is made,*
built ofrough bricks made from a clay that does not melt or calcine with
fire. Its vault has a diameter of about four hraccia and a height of six
braccia. It is arranged in this way. First a passage for the fire is made which
leads the flames into the middle of the furnace; around the circle at the
bottom a shelfthree-quarters of a braccio wide is made on which are to be
placed the pots that hold the glass, and this must be about one braccio above
the ground. Around this five or six well-made httle arches are built as
supports for the vault, and under these are made the little openings which
allow one to look inside and to take out the glass for working at will.
Then the vault is continued to cover the glass; and only in the middle is a
httle opening oizpalmo or less left. Above this vault another vault is made
which seals up and covers the whole; this is two braccia high above the first
so that it completes the [420] reverberatory furnace. This is the cooling
chamber for the works when they have been made, for if they did not
receive a certain tempering of air in this, all the vessels would break as
soon as they were finished when they felt the cold. At the back ofthis a
trumpet-shaped opening is made into the circular shelfon top ofthe vault
inside. The finished objects are placed here and can be skillfully drawn out
in three or four batches with a long iron tool by bringing them near the
opening one by one after they have been cooled.
Now one places in the furnace thus made, on top ofthe little brick wall
in the lower vault and near to the force ofthe fire, six or eight earthen ves¬
sels, or pots as they are called, made ofValencia clay (or that ofTreguanda
or other places whose clay resists the fire for a long time because of its
particular nature) that is well prepared, beaten, and freed of every Httle
stone. These are the vessels that hold the glass in the flames to purify it and
* As on other subjects, Agricola {De re metallica, Book XII, pp. 472-475) copies Birin￾guccio’s description ofglass making but adds important variants on the practice, including
the use of a separate annealing lehr. We reproduce one of Agricola’s woodcuts in the
Appendix (Fig. Ill) in the behef that it will aid the understanding of Biringuccio’s
description.
CHAPTER 14 GLASS 129
keep it melted. From the same clay are also made the bricks and mortar
with which the furnaces are built, particularly those places within which
the fire has to continue the longest. Outside, five or six masonry walls are
made, with arches three-quarters of a braccio thickjoined at the top. These
are hke ribs ofthe furnace and hold up the entire structure.
The aforesaid pots or vessels are made on the wheel by master potters
with this clay after it is well prepared. In size they are made three-quarters
of a braccio high,* one-half braccio wide both at the mouth and at the
bottom, two dita or a httle less in thickness, and one braccio high. These are
made uniformly thick, and then are left to dry out gradually in the shade.
After six or eight months from the time when they were made, when
you wish to put them in the furnace in order to begin work, that place
which you left open under the arches is a quarter closed with a wall and
only enough space is left to allow one ofthe said vessels to enter. Then fire
is appHed and continued until the whole furnace is thoroughly red-hot,
and at the same time all the vessels that you wish to put in the furnace and
some for reserve are placed in the reverberatory furnace where the said
glass frit was made, and with a slow fire they are started to warm and the
humidity is driven off. Then the fire is increased so that they become hot
and very red. When the masters see them thus and that they have given
proof ofstanding up without cracking, which often happens through the
shrinkage ofthe clay, they open the mouth ofthe furnace and as quickly
as they can with tongs or specially made iron tools they take them out of
the furnace where they were heated and place them one by one in the fur¬
nace made for working the glass, arranging them carefully in their places.
When they are well heated again they are filled with the frit or other
pieces of broken glass and the remaining opening of the furnace is par¬
tially built up with clay, making two small holes from one large one so
that the worker can take out the glass with his tube from whichever vessel
he wishes in order to work it. In the other opening he keeps [43] another
iron tube so that it will be hot. Outside in front ofthese openings there is
a support made ofa marble shelfplaced on an arch. Above this shelfand in
front ofthe opening for the glass a screen is made to serve as a protection
for the eyes ofthe workers and to carry an iron support which holds up
* Sic. In maximum diameter? Agricola {De rc metallica, p. 472), obviously basing his
remarks on this section, says, “The thickness of these pots is about two digits, their
height the same number offeet, and the diameter ofthe belly one and a halffeet, and of
the mouth and bottom one foot.” (Hoover translation.)
PIROTECHNIA BOOK II 130
the tube. This is done in all the places where the workers stand. When this
is done and everything is in good order, a strong fire is continually ap¬
plied to the furnace. By stirring the glass at intervals, you will find it
purified and liquefied after two whole days from the time when you put
the frit in the pots. You can then begin to work it, or you can begin
sooner ifyou see by means oftrials that it is ready. Thus begun, continue
as long as you wish or as long as you can, depending on the material that
is ready or the hot weather.
The fire for this work should be the flames from soft and dry wood so
that the flames are clear and without smoke. The longer the glass is kept in
this, the more it is purified and made united and shining; the objects
become more fixed and without bubbles or bHsters, and the workers can
handle it more easily.
I do not wish to omit telling you before passing to other things that it is
very necessary to take care that the vessels that are put in the furnace are
not cracked in any part and that they are well cemented and resistant to
the fire, for, ifthey do not stand up, it is difficult to take them out when
they are in the furnace. They can be repaired only with the greatest effort;
and ifthey are not repaired they are always leaking; and when they leak
they produce great loss instead of profit.
It now remains for me to tell you how this composition that has been
liquefied and well purified by fire is worked. Although you have seen that
it is possible to work it in many places, I remind you that it is a thing that
is worked while hot and that it is worked with great facility. Because of
this facility and because ofits great abundance it can be made in an infinite
number of places and into an infinite number of objects. It is worked by
being blown by men’s breath with certain iron tubes. Every worker pos¬
sesses two ofthese tubes, which are slender and about one and a half hraccia
long. With one ofthese they take the glass from the pot by attaching it to
the point and then wrapping it around little by little hke a viscous thing,
taking the quantity they wish and giving it the form of a large ball. The
first thing they do after withdrawing it is to press it on the marble, turning
it over and over so that it unites. Then blowing on it through the opening
ofthe tube they make it like a bubble and they elongate it by swinging it
about over their heads, or they mould it in a hollow mould of bronze.
They shape it hke ears of corn, leaves, or other things that they wish
and finally, in short, they give it the form of the vessel which they wish
by warming and blowing, by pressing and enlarging. Then separating it
CHAPTER 14 GLASS I3I
from the first tube they take hold ofit again at the bottom with the other
and improve it, cutting its mouth with a pair of shears; [431^] and they
finish it by attaching feet or handles or other external parts of different
glasses or even by gilding it with pure gold. If they wish, they adorn it
with paintings and with beautiful and pleasing enamels. Finally, at the
proper time whenever it is necessary to cool them, they are put onto the
vault to cool equably, through a httle hole that has been left in the cooling
chamber. Then when they can be handled they are taken out a few at a
time with the aforesaid iron tool through the trumpet-shaped opening.
Certainly this was one ofthe most beautiful and useful discoveries, al¬
though very expensive, for one is always seeing new and beautiful prod¬
ucts of this art that are pleasing. Truly I have seen objects so well made,
with their details so perfect, that ifthe artificer had had to make them of
wax he would have had to use much more effort and time, and he might
not have brought them to as good a result. At present I have near me a
fragile piece ofantique glass ofsquare form about four dita large, in which
a very beautiful leaf pattern has been worked like tarsia, and it has such a
distribution ofcolors that I cannot understand how the artificer made it so
beautifully and marvelously. A few days ago when I visited master Bal￾dassare* of Siena, a very fine architect, I was shown another piece equally
old that had a snail ornament ofvaried colors. It was a very fine work, with
a milky-white background all filled with enamels, and showed not only
great beauty but an almost impossible art. I also once saw handles of
broken vases made with certain masks and leaves. One of these was a
Medusa in which aU the hair and the serpents intertwined with it were
undercuts. Thus when I looked at it I could not believe that it had been
moulded but thought that it must have been made wholly or at least re¬
touched with the wheels for engraving gems. The beards ofthe masks and
the foliation that they bore were similar.
But leaving the ancients who were the gods ofthe arts, let us speak now
of the moderns. The best glasswork that is made in our times and that
which is of greater beauty, more varied coloring, and more admirable
skill than that ofany other place is made at Murano. In addition to color¬
ing them all possible tints, they also make them very clear and transparent
like true and natural crystal, and ornament them with paintings and other
very fine enamels. Thus it seems to me that all the metals must give way to
* Baldassare Peruzzi, the architect who worked on the Sienese Duoino, and whose
place was taken by Biringuccio.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK II 132
glass in beauty. Look at the rosaries, the salt cellars, and the drinking ves¬
sels in which one actually sees twisted designs ofthorn branches and other
crisscross inlays which appear to be in relief but actually are plane. Look
too at the large things, as well as the small, that they make of white or
colored glass and that seem to be woven ofosier twigs equally spaced with
the greatest uniformity and exactness oftermination. Regard the animals
and the shrubs, how finely and beautifully these works are made. I must
tell you that I have seen glass [44] the color ofpearl or tinted green or blue
or formed in various spirals made entirely of a single very slender fiber
like a thread, more than thirty hraccia long, all in one piece like gold or
silver drawn through the drawplate.
From this body are also made very fine enamels, colored and so beauti¬
ful that they are not only used when ground up for beautifying paintings
or for ornamenting objects ofgold, silver, or copper but they are also used
to counterfeit emeralds, diamonds, rubies, and all other gems of any color
whatsoever. I have seen some ofthese that, even though they were exam¬
ined andjudged by the eyes ofvery experienced and practiced men, could
not be distinguished by them as false. Thus, in short, to anyone consider¬
ing it well, all the effects of glass are marvelous. Considering its brief and
short life, owing to its brittleness, it cannot and must not be given too
much love, and it must be used and kept in mind as an example ofthe life
ofman and ofthe things ofthis world which, though beautiful, are transi¬
tory and frail.
Now leaving these discourses and returning to glass which, besides
being made ofthe frit with sal alkah as I have told you is the best way, can
also be made more simply. This does not have the same beauty and good
working qualities as the above, though it is made by many in order to
avoid work and expense. Let whoever wishes to make it take only the
river pebbles or the white sand, not with the salt of potash, but with an
equal amount of ordinary ashes and, after mixing this with some man¬
ganese and such things, put the mixture in the furnace in the pots that are
empty there, or in those put there for reserve, and without making frit in
the other way, purify it with the same fire that it is worked by and with
the necessary time.
The white color that master potters give as a coating on their earthen¬
ware vessels can also be called glass, as I shall tell you in its place. For that
marzacotta glaze is nothing other than frit composed of fme sand and
argol, burned tartar, or potash; or for economy, these are omitted and
CHAPTER 14 GLASS 133
something else taken. With this composition and with calcined lead and tin
the vases are enameled white. This makes a hard and pleasing covering
over the rough exterior of these earthenware objects. Then over the
white they paint as the master wishes with the same colored compositions.
But understand that I shall speak of these things in more detail in their
own place, that is, under the methods ofmaking pottery. And it seems to
me that I have said enough in order to bring this present book on semi¬
minerals to an end, for I do not now remember having promised to tell
you anything else.
0^M M-f^Mfiti^k-’^!-{t*ij»^•^^»Ji^afmi4Ata^sMwoot
«Hr»'« .,jpiKiPI©4«*> ,3»54i ito! waUttJi:. sbj.t^nafjljwiei
pwi*«Si H.t<iijf9i3dktaiihf
^a,(Jt<ack4ik'/(»»in^Jai*^,:i*ib!i»^BS^
ti tiia^ focircly ot 5i: :anj^- ia^gimi3)^tufi'ox
^ ,. ..I—-,—r—I- fe»P> 4t in .wir ,)ina? ajilj,3f
%vfeitv:j 'I.
•jV>t h-r -.^
'.hen jjl^
:J^.N<'W itjNi^ thoc .i1«»»r_ v;i J.<ii rewmmK ij wbofc.' be^iJo^
(he ;ru .Mdi iitsfiali». I have fJi vpu is i^fer Wav.^
r*'',^ ti. lo n,.;n.r;ai«JjV. Tiait Joe* .wk Jmvie •;,e tAim.-, WV.Ood
grt.Vt - .nui-; *s *c «0..AC, *fih,gl, ,,.is t,. in
k ’' .f-'" ''< !>» W niab it take <»ly.(l!e
„ ' '•‘‘•^ ”‘V.:HiC tWn.,|(i,iroi<. <;Kf.l«^,n ih« pie(. ,!,vi ;.,5
^vvav.,,-.. .. .„,; ,!.e ,, ,,,. j;
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gol, lurrMvIvUtmt* v»C,pc<^4T., vf -,>t otniitr?- a- 4
[44^] PREFACE TO THE THIRD BOOK OF
PIROTECHNIA
Concerning the Assaying ofMetal Ores
and Their Preparationfor Smelting.
S I told you before in the treatise on ores, once these are
found (whether they are ores ofmetals or semiminerals) it
is necessary to assay them in order to know what is in them,
since the judgment of the sight is not sufficient for recog¬
nizing the quantity or even what substance they contain.
For this reason, it is necessary to come to assaying and, with
the knowledge of experience, to weigh their virtues and to proceed with
the work or withdraw from it and its expense; and also through knowl¬
edge to make provision for their defects ifsome evilness harms the ores.
For ifyou should have need of a thing that would help them and should
not fmd it, all that you have done would be lost; and, on the other hand,
if you should fmd that the ores are abundant and rich and easy to smelt,
you take courage to continue without respect for anything.
Therefore, in the following book I shall tell you first in general how the
assay of all the metals should be made. I shall enlarge in particular on
silver more than on any ofthe others since it is more important. Then I
shall teU you how the ores should be prepared for smelting and also how
blast furnaces and other furnaces for smelting such ores should be con¬
structed, and finally how all elemental mixtures of metals are to be sepa¬
rated one from the other with the ability and power of art, and how they
are reduced to their fmal perfection and fineness according to their species.
136
[45]
PIROTECHNIA BOOK III
THE FIRST CHAPTER
Concerning the Method ofMaking the Assay of
the Ores ofAll the Metals and Especially
of Those That Contain Silver and Gold.
IHE assay of all metal ores is made by means offusion and they are
brought to their fineness in the same way as if they were a large
quantity. However, I have told you oflead, tin, copper, and iron in
their own places, that they are smelted in order to obtain a good assay so
that one may know from its weight whether the quantity justifies the
expense. This is their assay, for it does not matter whether it be done with
great exacmess. But the eye is turned with much more care to the assaying
ofsilver and gold, since they are things of value, and one tries to have a
more exact knowledge ofthem.
Thus, when you have found the mountain and the vein ofore in it, and
have also uncovered it or extracted it from the mine, it is necessary to
make an assay of it, for though it is often apparent to the experts what
kind of metal it contains, nevertheless they do not know for sure what
virtues or evilness it may have unless the light of the assay itself shows
them. Therefore it is necessary to extract a quantity in some way that is as
free from rock and as good as possible. To a part ofthis, without any ad¬
dition, a smelting fire must be apphed m order to see whether it can be
smelted easily. Ifit does not smelt by itself, you must consider and try to
understand what causes this, for many times it comes from the rock which
accompanies it and which contains much dryness and earthiness. I do not
believe that one can know this with otherjudgment than by experiment
with powerful and strong fires. Therefore, if the efforts of ordinary
methods do not succeed, it is necessary to try to soften them by means of
the company offusible things—now with marble, now with ground glass,
now with lead, galena,* or litharge from lead, or with iron scale, or else
with the slag of other ores. With small operations even borax, saltpeter,
or ochre is used, and similar things, as I shall tell you in detail in the dis¬
cussion ofthe preparation ofores for smelting. In short, try to see whether
they can be overcome by adjustment ofthe fires or by virtue ofthe means
* vena di piombo. The identification with galena is not certain. It seems, however, to be
distinct from the ordinary lead ore, miniera di piombo, which was probably the carbonate,
for it was smelted without roasting.
CHAPTER I THE ASSAYING OF ORES 137
because with these they may be transformed into fusible salts, which is
almost the goal that is sought. But when by chance the prospectors
encounter sour and wild ores, either for smelting or for assaying them,
they roast them two or three times to evaporate them and then quench
them with much water and also grind them, and when ground, wash
them so that they may be as free as possible from that earthiness which
they contain.* Then, when they have been prepared in this way, the first
Us^’] assay with mercury should be made, and, if this does not succeed,
the ores are put in the cupel with lead or with the companion that ex¬
perience has shown to make them melt.
But because I am sure you do not know the method of using mercury
(since I have not yet told you about it, or even what cupels are or how to
use them) I realize that, since you have the ore ready in your hands for
smelting, it is necessary for me to leave the discussion of mercury for its
own place and to teach you first how to make the aforesaid cupels and the
form ofthe little furnaces for assaying, and then, taking up the ore again,
to show you the exact method that is used for making the assays.
The cupels are little vessels ready to receive a certain quantity oflead or
other melted metal in order to refine it. They are made of the ashes of
young ram’s horn'j' or some other kind of ashes and have a shallow cavity
on top. Both large and small cupels are made according to the need for
using them, and they serve no other purpose than this.
These are made of many kinds of ashes, but the best is the one men¬
tioned made of young ram’s-horn ashes. They are also made of the leg
bones of horses, donkeys, and mules and, in short, of any bone that has
been in the furnace and is well calcined and then quenched, washed well,
heated again, and also pounded and sifted. Cupels are also made from
ashes of willows, grapevines, nuts, cabbage stalks, and, indeed, of every
other kind of ashes, provided that they be well baked, then quenched in
water, dried, and passed through a fine sieve.
Whatever kind of ash you wish to take is placed iu a tub or other vessel
ofwood or other material and dampened with a certain amount ofwater.
By mixing this together with the water it must be brought to such degree
* The introduction ofthis process ofroasting and washing played an important part in
the establishment ofthe first English copper smelter in Keswick. Grant Francis [Smelting
ofCopper in the Swansea District, Swansea, 1867) gives the full text of a letter written in
1581 to the owners describing the “A infective and evil humors” and the methods of
removing them with the recovery ofvitriol or copperas.
cennare, digemmc, di coma di castrati, “ashes ofthe buds ofthe horns oframs.”
138 PIROTECHNIA book ni
of dampness that when it is taken in the hand and pressed it will hold to¬
gether well. When this has been done, a hollow wooden or bronze mould
is made, on a lathe, of the size and height that it is desired to make the
cupels; this is much wider on one end than on the other. Finally the cupels
are moulded by filling this cavity with the said dampened ashes. They are
moulded and pressed down by beating with a wooden stamp made on the
lathe, with a convex bottom so that when the cupel is moulded there will
Figure 12. Making cupels for the assay.
be a hollow in its top as large as the widest part ofthe cupel mould, leav¬
ing a space the width of a thread or a little more all around.
Having done this, place in the exact center ofthe bottom ofthe cupel
where the silver is reduced a goodly quantity of ashes made ofthe points
of hart’s horn or the jawbone of pike, or a little powdered emery that,
however, has been heated three or four times and then quenched in
vinegar. This is done so that when the silver has been brought to purity it
may be separated more cleanly in order that the assay may be more exact.
A little burned borax can also be put in and a little white lead also serves.
It is sufficient that a small quantity ofthese things, either alone or in a mix¬
ture [46], be put in, indeed, only enough to cover that small part of the
bottom where the silver is finally reduced. Then place the wooden form
on it again and pound it so that the two ashes may unite well and then
take out the cupel and let it dry and use it as you wiU hear.
But before going on, I tell you that I have seen and have also used many
times from necessity in place of a cupel a piece ofpantile cut with a chisel
somewhat hke the hollow of a cupel. But because they are easily broken
CHAPTER I THE ASSAYING OF ORES 139
by the fire they should not be used ifit is possible to do otherwise. Yet I
wished to tell you, so that ifyou should not have the time or the means to
make cupels and you should have to assay some silver ore, you can make
use ofit.
In addition to the cupels it is necessary to have a small brick furnace
made like a little tower ofa square shape inside and walled to the thickness
of a palmo or a little more inside and about one and a half hraccia high
from the ground; at the bottom, as ifit were the door ofthe tower, there
is a little square-holed opening, through which it is to receive the draft.
Above, where the fire is to be, is an inside space ofa quarter braccio. At the
distance of a palmo beneath, where a little shelfis formed by the narrow¬
ing, a square opening like a window is made four dita wide. A dito or
shghtly more below this a little grate is made ofiron bars which are placed
rather more than half a dito distant one from the other. On this grate a
little piece of cut brick is placed with its surface level with the opening,
shaped so that the bed inside at the entrance ofthe opening is widened a
little more than half a dito. This is the little furnace.
Near this is a muffle* made of the clay used for crucibles or pots, or
some other fire-resistant clay. This is in the shape of a small vault as wide
as the front opening or a little more and extending toward the fire far
enough [46^] to cover the cupels well. It is perforated all over. Ifyou do
not wish or are not able to make this of clay, it can be made ofiron bars
crossed with charcoal or else bent and joined together. However, this
would be much better if made of clay, because of the scale that the iron
throws offin the fire.
Now when you have arranged the aforesaid things in this way, and
have prepared the ore according to its needs, all that remains is to come to
the actual procedure of making the assay. To do this, you first place the
muffle inside the furnace above the grate and bring it close to the front
opening. Applying a good fire, the rest is filled with charcoal. When this
is blazing well and the muffle and the furnace are red-hot, you put the
cupels inside through the front opening. These are also allowed to become
very hot, so that they show that they have become white from the fire,
before putting anything in them. Then put in these enough pure silver￾free lead to halffiU them and, closing the opening with a large coal, allow
them to stay there until the lead is seen to turn from black to white and
become fine and very clear. Then in order to know what percentage of
* archetto, “little arch.”
140 PIROTECHNIA book ni
silver is contained in the ore that you wish to assay, take some ofit finely
pounded and exactly weighed on the small balance. In order that you may
understand better, let us suppose that you have taken an ounce, or half an
ounce, or a quarter ofan ounce; whichever ofthese it is, you imagine that
it is one hundred pounds. Put it gradually in the cupels in two or three
batches, as you wish, on top of the said lead, letting it stand in this not
only until it wets the bottom but also until all the lead evaporates.
Figure 13. An assaying laboratory, showing balances, muffle furnace
for cupeling, ingot mould, etc.
But ifthe ore is difficult to melt, after weigliing it, mix it with whatever
you have found goes with it best and melt it with a double amount of
lead in a well-covered and luted crucible. You must remember when you
have the crucible on the fire to lift it up with tongs and strike the bottom
several times against something so that all the melted metal, falling down,
may collect together and separate itself from either its own eartliiness or
that ofthe composition placed there. Then when you believe that the ore
is aU well melted, open the crucible and cast it in bars. The slag will remain
attached all around the crucible and whatever metal there may be will
come out mixed with the lead, and after it has been cut in httle pieces
place it gradually in the cupel as you did above with the pure ore. If it
contains any copper, add a little more lead two or three times so that it
may be purified better. In this way, from the silver that remains in the
cupel, you will have an assay ofhow much per hundred the ore that you
have found contains.
CHAPTER 2 PREPARING ORES FOR SMELTING 141
There are also some who usually make an assay without furnaces or so
many objects, with only a perforated pot or with a little furnace [47] made
with four bricks, large coals, and four iron bars, like those made when
they wish to solder something, apply niello, or enamel it. Although these
people seem to avoid difficulty, they increase it instead, for only rarely do
they avoid the necessity ofdoing twice what they could do once, because
assays are done accurately only with difficulty. It very seldom happens
that some ashes or coals do not fall in or some other misfortune occur.
Thus, to conclude, the method with the aforesaid furnace is the easiest and
the most perfect.
THE SECOND CHAPTER
Concerning the Method ofPreparing Ores before Smelting.
A LL the ores ofany kind whatsoever, even though they be semiminer￾als and may be perfect in their qualities, have to be recognized by
^ jL experienced and good sorters. These men must have a detailed as
well as a general experience ofthe metals so that in this first preparation,
which is most important, they may know how to distinguish the good
from the bad, and to know what is rock and what is ore. They must use
patience in this, breaking and cutting and freeing the ore from the earth.
They must separate the good ore from the bad, avoiding as far as possible
every occasion for poisoning it by traces of other ores, evil stones, or
other things inimical to its nature. Finally, with the judgment ofthe eye
and with tools, and, in the end, by roasting it with fire and then quench¬
ing it with water, or by washing and re-washing it, the ore must be made
as pure as possible in order to join it better with the companions that
seem to be the most beneficial for its needs.
Ores would be useless stones without smelting. Therefore, when it is
certain that such ores are of divers elemental mixtures, aid must be given
to each one according to the evil ingredients [471^] that harm it. But be¬
cause such evil qualities are things that are often not apparent to the eye,
such as too great a burning, or too much earthiness so that when they are
alone the fire burns these ores before it melts them, it is necessary to tem¬
per them with other materials. To do this it is necessary to have the ability
PIROTECHNIA BOOK m 142
and experience ofa master who has tried the means ofstrong and power¬
ful fires or ofcompanions, and, thus proceeding, does so many things that
fmally a way is found that can tame the wildness of such ores by its
properties. This he does by mixing with them fusible things, such as sand,
marble, and other stones and other similar simple minerals that are of a
watery nature and very powerful for this. In order to be entirely sure, you
must try with the various forms offurnace, now with fires ofwood, now
with those of charcoal, and finally in one way or another you must do
enough so that it either bums or is smelted. Let it be said as a universal
rule, which I know you understand, that easy methods must be taken ad¬
vantage of and used for ores that are easy, and all the powerful ones are
used for those that are difficult until they are made to give way.
Now, to come to the practical details, the dry and badly disposed ores
need first to be roasted in an open furnace and to be evaporated well with
wood and charcoal, as I have already told you about gold ore. There are
some that, when they are heated, need to be quenched in water once or
twice, and all, ifyou wish to do it well, need to be finely ground and then
washed very well and carefully in a trencher or a little washing boat in a
wash trough ofrunning water so that all the good, because ofits weight,
remains pure and clear at the bottom ofthe little boat.
Ifit does not yield in any other way, a lead bath is made hke a cupeling
hearth so that the ore gradually goes inside as it melts; and then you purify
and reduce it to fineness by means of the cupeling hearth. In case this is
gold and does not have that lovely color which you desire, perhaps be¬
cause it has not arrived at its ultimate fineness, you apply common
cement, as I shall teach you in its place, bringing it to the fineness and
color which you wish in one or two times.
The substance ofsilver is also extracted from several ores that are pure
by grinding them as I have told you and then washing them and later
moistening them with vinegar in which there has been some verdigris, or
else moistening them with water in which sublimate, vitriol, and verdi¬
gris have been dissolved. This is done in a wooden or stone mill pan with a
little millstone above that grinds the two things together with a good
quantity ofmercury, and by rubbing makes the mercury embrace every
substance ofthe metals and take it into itself Having gathered this up and
passed it through a deerskin purse or evaporated it with an alembic, the
silver or gold that is there all remains in the purse or at the bottom ofthe
cucurbit. This way is very short and where it succeeds is very profitable.
CHAPTER 2
143 PREPARING ORES FOR SMELTING
But because those ores are rare that are without admixture [48] ofsome
other metal with which the mercury does not unite, use in its place the
method of fire. These are the common methods with which one pro¬
ceeds, but whoever wished to speak to you of all in detail would need to
be more angel than man, for there are as many methods as there are
opinions of masters and kinds and natures of ores, although they differ
little one from the other.
There are some ores that, although they can be smelted, have in them
nevertheless a certain companion with an evilness which deprives them of
the virtues that they contain. In the words of the masters this thing is
called arsenic. It is recognized by the assay, because that which the assay
has given is not returned in the large operations. The ores are freed ofit by
sublimation and by roasting. It is also detected by heating and quenching
the ores two or three times with water, and fmaUy by accompanying
them with things contrary to such evil qualities, such as galena, slag, and
other fusible stones, or else with large lead baths. With those ores that are
sour and harsh with which you cannot proceed in the ordinary and direct
way, try the extraordinary, mixing them, as I have said, with all those
things that may induce them to easy smelting, such as galena, marble,
white glass-sand, and other river stones, and, in addition, gravel, tuff, iron
slag, litharge from cupeling furnaces, and slag from the same or from dif¬
ferent ores; alternatively use ochre, bole, saltpeter, and borax; or ground
glass, sal alkali, common glass made fusible, slagged furnace bricks, pure
lead, or other similar means. Put each one ofthese in by itselfor mixed, as
is seen to be necessary.
All these things are, as you see, mineral materials that have a certain
natural affinity for the thing that is to be smelted, and that have the power
of penetrating with their great wateriness. When their faciUty ofmelting
is brought near to the dry hardness of the ores, as intermediaries they
make them change their natures and dispose them to be better than they
were before; and they make the dry and hard ores soft and tender. In addi¬
tion to what I have told you I wish to say as well that benign Nature often
generates the said things in the company ofthese sour ores or other stones
or earths disposed to such an effect, as ifshe had pleasure in fulfilling the
needs ofour appetites.
For this reason it is necessary to have a superabundance oftests, and to
test and try enough to find the desired aid, not only by using ordinary
things but also by varying the quantities, adding now halfthe quantity of
144 PIROTECHNIA BOOK in
the ore and now an equal portion, now twice and now three times, so
that the virtue that the ore contains may better defend itselffrom the fire
and from the evrlness of its companions. In this action lead ore or the
Htharge ofcupeling furnaces is excellent, [481^] and also lead itself, as I told
you before, if a large bath ofit is made so that it can conveniently search
the ore completely and attract to itself the silver or other substance of
virtue contained in the ore that you put in it, since the lead places itselflike
a shield between it and the fire.
Care must also be taken in the construction of the means for making
fires, such as the furnaces, which must be made according to the require¬
ments and quality ofthe ores. Usually for this purpose blast furnaces are
used that are wide at the top and narrow at the bottom. These, as is evi¬
dent, make a very powerful fire by means of charcoal and the blast of
strong bellows, both because they are narrow and because they are pro¬
tected at the sides from the coldness ofthe air. The fire is made as strong as
the masters wish ifthe blast is multiplied with two or three pairs of bel¬
lows. But whoever has no judgment should not use such power, because
it often harms instead ofhelps, for the virtue of the ore is consumed, mak¬
ing it evaporate and turn into smoke. For this reason it often happens that
closed and well-built reverberatory furnaces with wood and charcoal are
better than blast furnaces. But when these are used, the ore is first roasted
to free it well from fumes and then, when it has been crushed and washed,
its companions are mixed with it. This treatment must be given when it is
not naturally Hquefiable. In short, either by these means or by others,
always using the patience and foresight ofthe masters, the ores must be so
tormented that the obstinacy oftheir hardness is overcome.
I remember that I once saw in Germany (where perhaps this art is prac¬
ticed and flourishes more than in any other place in Christendom) not
only the arrangement ofthe blast furnaces for this procedure but also the
preparation for smelting. For this they took copper ore that stdl contained
considerable silver values. After breaking this in pieces like beans, they
mixed it with a quarter part ofiron slag, another quarter part ofpowdered
lead ore, and almost more than one-third ofthe whole quantity ofcrushed
marble. Then with all these things mixed in a yard and made into a layer,
they took it little by little in a pamiier and put it in a blast furnace to
smelt. They kept the blast furnace always full of this composition and
charcoal, continually adding some as the charcoal was consumed and the
ore smelted. As I think about this, I am sure, indeed I am most certain.
CHAPTER 3 FURNACES FOR SMELTING ORES 145
since I have used it, that every other ore that is not very different in nature
from this would reduce in a similar way to the purification of melting.
Certainly, seeing the methods that others use is a wide gateway toward
proceeding confidently by other paths in order to arrive at desired ends.
[49] THE THIRD CHAPTER
Concerning the Shape ofBlast Furnaces and
Other Furnacesfor Smelting Ores. SMELTING is a thing essential to the end for which ores are sought,
for without it every ore is a useless stone. This art is especially
needed by those who, drawn on by hope, have mined ores in large
quantities with great expense and effort. For this reason it is worth while
to use one’s wits and, ifordinary ways should not suffice, to consider how
to fmd new ways ofsmelting the ores in order to extract the metals and to
purge them oftheir earthiness. For this reason I shall now tell you ofblast
and other furnaces, and I shall also tell you, in order that you may be
warned, that whoever wishes to do this well must first look at the nature
and quality ofthe ore. You will already have had enlightenment on this
from the experiments on assaying and with this as guiding star it is neces¬
sary to make ingenious structures and to provide for the other needs as
necessary, for one ore requires iron and another lead. Since I have already
spoken of these in their own places on their ores, it is not necessary at
present that I repeat, but here I wish to speak only of copper ore as a
companion of silver and gold, and of where art is most required and
where difficulties chiefly appear.
For these things a machine must be built that is convenient to a good
water supply in order to continue the work more easily. Its wheels should
be large and easily moved, constructed in such a way that the force ofthe
water lifts the bellows that are placed at the tuyere to direct the blast
inside the furnaces that are to smelt the ores. For this, attention must first
be given to the site ofthe machine, the quantity ofwater, and its fall; then
to the wood for building the macliine and for making charcoal; then to
the stones that are used for the blast furnaces; then to the provision of
good bellows that are wide, long, and full in their sides and made ofcloth,
for the better these are, the more they quicken the power ofthe charcoal
PIROTECHNIA BOOK ra 146
fire within the blast furnace, and the ore is thereby smelted better and in
greater quantity because the fire is the prime agent in this operation.
Now in order to make the blast furnace you must try to have stone
which resists fire very well, such as black flintstone flecked in white, or
peperino, or a certain dead stratified stone that is almost halftalc. Ifit is not
possible to have these, take the most resistant ofthose available, for other¬
wise the violent, continuous, and long fires eat them and cause great
expense to the patron and much annoyance and work to the laborers. For,
in addition to spoiling the work, it makes it difficult to bring it to perfec¬
tion because if the edges ofthe shapes ofthe structures do not hold firm
it is necessary to abandon the work and remake them again and again.
Therefore, if you cannot do otherwise, take some of the best that con¬
venience offers or that experience [49^] advises, for by trying out it is pos¬
sible that from one day to another you may chance upon one that is
exactly right, although at the time you may not have it.
Now supposing that you have chosen the site where you wish to con¬
struct this machine, and that it has the conveniences ofwater, and that it is
likewise near the ore and the wood for making charcoal, and that you
have already built up the size and shape of the house and covered and
finished the supports and all the walls, and then have put in motion all the
channels and wheels, and have made the bellows and every appropriate
contrivance for beginning the work; now it is necessary that I show you
the usual method that is used for making the blast furnace for smelting and
then the form ofsome other furnaces in order to arrive at the destined end
ofsmelting and purifying the ores.
These, as you will understand, are made of various kinds according to
the requirements of the materials or according to the opinions of the
workers or the customs following which they are usually made. Some¬
times they are made single, sometimes they are doubled, depending on
whether it is desired to apply more or less fire to the thing. For I know, as
you will understand, that whoever wishes to overcome a great and
obstinate hardness must apply a power greater than it in order to soften it.
Now in order to make ores liquefiable it is found that no means will serve
other than fire, and therefore it is necessary to adapt fire so that it can
operate with its power and to give it the capacity for becoming more or
less strong depending on the materials, so as to apply a soft fire to soft ores
and a harsh and powerful fire to ores that are hard and sharp. The arrange¬
ment and shape ofthe things help much in this, and for this result experi-
CHAPTER 3 FURNACES FOR SMELTING ORES 147
ence and reason alike recommend the furnace called blast furnace. In this
there is a fire of charcoal with a large united blast, compressed and very
powerful, especially where the blast ofthe bellows strikes, for there it is so
alive and so powerful in its every force that it either melts or burns to
ashes everything that comes there. For this reason I shall tell you its shape
and I shall speak ofthe ordinary one because the unusual ones differ only
by a doubling ofthe walls or the addition ofseveral pairs ofbellows. Each
master usually makes them in a different shape; one long and narrow, one
bent a little at the bottom, others wider or less wide where the blast ofthe
bellows enters.
Now, to conclude, all blast furnaces are built against the side of a wall
that is convenient to the water for the wheel machine that is to drive
the bellows. The ordinary blast furnaces are given the form ofa mill hop¬
per, wide at the mouth and narrow at the bottom. Four or six ofthese are
made according to the quantity of ore that you wish to work, or to the
amount ofwater available for driving. The devices for lifting up the bel¬
lows are arranged so that with water and by means of a single wheel
either all the bellows work together or whichever ones are desired at one
time. Certainly this is a very useful thing as well as an ingenious one, for
this wheel is a strong worker that endures much labor and never tires as
long as you wish; and it goes fast or slowly as you desire. Surely [50] it is
impossible to work without it. Ifyou did, you would wear out an infinite
number of men. I shall tell you ofits form in the discussion of the ma¬
chines.
Returning now to the blast furnaces, I have already told you that they
are made against the side of a wall, and there are some who cut them into
it.* In order to avoid so much work and expense every blast furnace
should be made between two pilasters separated from each other by about
two and a half hraccia and four hraccia or more high, for, even ifthey sur¬
pass the height ofthe blast furnace, this does no harm. Between these two
pilasters the blast furnace is built of those infusible stones mentioned
above, laying them with little mortar and making them tight, especially in
those places that must suffer the greatest violence ofthe fire. In order to
give the inside space its shape, a bed that inclines somewhat forward is
first made as a foundation for this blast furnace, half a braccio above the
* Biringuccio’s illustration of blast furnaces (Fig. 14) is so inferior that we think it
necessary to add one of Agricola’s (see Fig. IV in the Appendix). This differs from
Biringuccio’s description only in the lack of a considerable taper in the furnace shaft.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK m 148
ground; above this one commences to build up and make a square hollow
space one and a half palmi wide. At each comer of the foundation two
strings are stretched, extending upwards and outwards like a reversed
pyramid which at the extreme mouth attains two quarters*[wide] and has
a height oftwo or one and three-quarters braccia from the bottom. In truth
a little more or less does not matter either in length or width, for the
making ofsuch things very exactly is all a matter of the opinions of the
masters.
When this has been done, the front is closed with a good wall that is
almost straight. However, in order to do it well, you should build it up all
at once as you go along so that the walls may be betterjoined one to the
other. This front wall shall be made of such a height that the smelter
workman can easily reach it in order to put in the charcoal and ore with¬
out much inconvenience. I advise you that the higher the furnaces are the
longer the ore or whatever you wish to smelt remains in the fire, and it
becomes hotter and softer in the place where the fire is the strongest be¬
cause of the impetus ofthe blast.
Now behind this blast furnace, on the part of the wall where the bel¬
lows are with the water wheel or other device that moves them, a copper
tuyere is put which holds at its widest part the mouths ofboth the bellows.
They should be in pairs so that there may always pass into the blast furnace
through the hole of the tuyere a single continuous blast and not two—
unless, however, two openings with two pairs of bellows are put there.
This tuyere should be arranged so that the wind strikes in a straight line
almost against the middle of the blast furnace and is directed toward the
bottom.
On the front side ofthe blast furnace there is an opening with a recessed
Joint where a small stone door is fitted so that the ore can be taken out and
put in or arranged as needed. Then at the foot of this jointed part, level
with the bottom, a little hole is made through which the smelted material
is to run out. Also near the blast furnace, where this little hole opens out, a
forehearth is made with iron plates or with paving stones built into the
ground, forming a [soi'] vessel like a bushel measure or of a similar size.
By the side ofthis a ditch is also made in the ground, a braccio wide and
half a braccio deep.
After all these things have been done and you wish to come to the
operation ofthe blast furnace, take charcoal dust and clay or white earth
* Sic. A typographical error for two and a quarter?
CHAPTER 3 FURNACES FOR SMELTING ORES 149
and some ashes and mix them all in a wooden or stone mill pan with a
heavy wooden hammer attached to the bellows wheel so that it beats them
together well. Moisten with enough water to hold the mixture tightly
together, then take this preparation and make the bottom ofthe blast fur¬
nace with it, beating it well and making it solid with a piece ofwood or
with a round stone as is also done with cupeling hearths, arranging it to
slope toward the hole, so that the smelted ore may easily run out. Then
the opening that was left before to permit the building of the bottom is
closed with the fitted stone and lute, leaving only that little two-dita hole
for leading the ore and the melted slag to the forehearth when required.
When this has been done, the forehearth that was made in front of
the blast furnace is filled with the same composition of charcoal dust and
clay, and it is well pressed down and consolidated. Then by cutting in the
middle a cavity is dug out and made down to the bottom, half a braccio in
diameter at the mouth and a palnio at the bottom, and at the side a hole is
made as an outlet which opens into the ditch that I told you must be made
in the ground. Then a channel is made between the opening ofthe outlet
ofthe blast furnace and the forehearth. When you see that the space be¬
tween the bottom of the blast furnace and the tuyere is full ofmetal and
melted slag, tap the blast furnace with an iron and cause all the molten
material that you have to come out through that chamiel into the fore¬
hearth where it is allowed to stand for a time. Every particle of metal
collects in the bottom as the heavier and less viscous thing, and the earthi¬
ness, melted and become slag, separates and floats on top as you will
understand when I tell you how the smelted ores are purified. In this way
ordinary blast furnaces are arranged and made as I have described.
There have been some who have made the blast furnaces double, plac¬
ing one blast furnace on the other with two pairs of bellows and, doing
this, they pass the smelted product ofthe first into the second. This seems
to me twice the work as well as more expensive and finally to be a super¬
stitious rather than a useful thing. Even ifthe fact that the inside space of
one shaft seems small makes you think ofmaking two blast furnaces, make
one that is twice as long when you can, but do not do this unless two or
three pairs ofbellows can be put there ifyou need them.
There are some others who make this form of blast furnace like a true
sleeve,* from the shape of which it first took its name. They make this
wide at the bottom and bent at the elbow and then all the rest is straight as
* manicha {manica), the common word for sleeve, also used for the blast furnace.
150 PIROTECHNIA book ni
you can see fully drawn near the other one in the present figure. [51] All
that melts in this runs into a ditch or receptacle that is made for it, and it
takes the blast practically at the bend ofthe elbow or four dita above. But
I do not like this form unless at least three-quarters ofthe front opening is
closed up, because it seems to me that, driven by the force of the blast,
more of the charcoal and the flames must come out through the front
opening than remain within.
Figure 14. Various forms ofblast furnaces.
There are some others who, because they are smelting soft ores, make
wind [i.e., natural draft] furnaces for smelting instead of blast furnaces.
Some others make a reverberatory furnace using wood because they do
not wish to apply such vigorous fires as those of the blast furnaces with
blast and charcoal. In fact, these are not suitable for lead and tin ores and
certain very corrupt ones. They also say that they smelt in this kind of
furnace because the ores have no difficulty in evaporating, and the fire is
introduced there more gently. Indeed they say that it is almost another
fire roasting the ores before smelting. Although I have never seen such
furnaces, they have been so well described to me in words that I think
repeating the same will suffice for you, and I have wished to show them to
you in drawing so that you may understand them better. But, whatever
they may be like, it seems to me that they are more for calcining than
for smelting.
As I have heard, a circular brick floor is made for these on the ground,
like a flat wheel, two and a halfbraccia in diameter, whose height from the
CHAPTER 3 FURNACES FOR SMELTING ORES 151
ground, that is its thickness, is half a braccio. In the center ofthis a hole is
made hke that in a millstone, three-quarters of a braccio or a Httle more in
diameter, and under this is made a space passing almost from one side of
the wheel to the other, through which the fire can be apphed. Then build
up the space in the middle from the wheel and continue it until a height of
one and a half braccia is reached, always narrowing it like a trumpet or an
inverted funnel with the mouth downwards. This is to be the shaft
Figure 15. Circular reverberatory furnace for smelting ores.
through which the fire rises. Around this, when you have finished it,
[511'] a bed is made that has four surfaces inclined toward the outside, that
is, it is divided into four parts. The mouth from which the flames are to
issue is one-third braccio wide. Then enlarge [the bed] one-eighth braccio
extending outside, encircle with a wall ofa quarter braccio, and construct a
vault covering the whole very well to a height ofabout one and a quarter
braccia. Underneath, at the end ofeach incline, a little hole is made that has
a channel through which the smelted ore can run down and come out.
Under this there will be a ditch which receives the materials as they come
out. Three or four dita above the bed ofthe furnace make two httle holes
for looking in and placing and handling the ore. These can be opened and
closed with two little doors at your pleasure. Near the vault, a little above
these holes, make four vents so that the superfluous smoke and flames can
come out. This is the form of the furnace that they mean and, in my
opinion, it is not very effective.
Some others, I have heard, make ordinary reverberatory furnaces for
smelting ores, but they make them long and not round, and they have the
152 PIROTECHNIA book hi
slope for the melted material on the side where the flames enter so that
the ore can always be added easily and the slag drawn off, and also so that
the fire beats upon it more all over. They make the way for the fire at the
back and below the bed ofthe furnace. This also does not please me since
the ore coming forth melted as slag or as metal always blocks the mouth
ofthe fire entrance.
There are some others who easily smelt ores with simple flames of
wood apphed in varied ways in the furnace. I wished to give you this in¬
formation on these furnaces and devices for smelting so that you, too,
should also know how to talk ofthem, but it is my advice that when you
need to use one, you use the blast furnace because it is more vigorous
and more [52] successful, especially for certain kinds of metals that
necessarily require a powerful fire for smelting.
I do not wish to end this chapter without mentioning iron, although I
have already spoken at length about it in discussing its ore. I wish to tell
you how the means that are used for smelting and purifying iron are
really blast furnaces, although they are called just furnaces. It is indeed
true that they are larger and arranged in a different manner from ordinary
ones because a larger amount and a greater violence offire is required on
account ofits poorly mixed earthiness. For this reason those large bellows
and those large interior spaces for holding the charcoal are made. I have
seen some of these blast furnaces seven and perhaps almost eight hraccia
high and two and a halfwide in diameter at the center and two at the bot¬
tom. Whoever wishes to make this well should cut it in a hillside so that
the ore and charcoal can be put in easily from above on level ground,
which bears the load that the animal brings there, for these blast furnaces
are never so small that they need less than fifty or sixty sacks of charcoal
and six or eight loads of ore continually. Moreover, it is not surprising
that it is also necessary to have large bellows since much blast is necessary
to keep such a fire alive. I have already told you and shown you in draw¬
ing [Fig. 3] how these stand upright at the blast furnace and direct their
wind into a tube almost at the bottom ofthe furnace with the nozzle that
beats the blast downwards.
When these machines with water power have been made (for without
them it would be impossible to do it) you reap the fruits of the labors
endured—either iron or copper or silver or whatever other ore it may
have been. You must not fail in any detail for then you would lose much
profit because oflittle knowledge.
CHAPTER 4 SMELTING PRACTICE 153
THE FOURTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Practice to Be Used in
Smelting the Ores ofMetals. Having previously shown you how ores are found and mined,
and also how they are prepared and disposed for smelting, and
then how the blast furnaces and other furnaces are made for
purging their earthiness, all this would be as nothing ifI did not proceed
to show you the method ofsmelting them. Therefore, in the present chap¬
ter I wish to show you how you must proceed in this very important
operation, telling you aU I have seen and also how much work with this
kind ofblast furnace I have done or directed.
For this reason I tell you first to take by weight or measure the quantity
of ore that you wish to smelt and, particularly ifit is a kind that contains
silver, break it into small pieces about the size of [52^] beans. Ifthe ore had
previously needed evaporation by fire or cleaning by washing, you will
have had this done well and have had it properly prepared by a master
sorter or others. A layer ofthis is arranged on a bed of planks, bricks, or
flat stones in front ofthe blast furnace and its companion is placed on top,
then a quarter part ofgalena or a third ifyou can obtain it. Then an equal
part of crushed iron slag or slag from the same or different ore is added.
These materials are spread in layers one above the other.
When the blast furnace has been constructed as taught above, correct in
all its parts, and is full of well-kindled burning charcoal, then fiU it up
with charcoal and admit water to the bellows machine. When you see
that it is well kindled again from this wind and that the flames begin to
come out forcefully on top, work it down with a little rake and fiU it up
again. Then the pannier is filled with new charcoal, the blast furnace
heaped full, and another basketful ofthe said composition ofore is also put
on top. Proceed in this way, continually adding charcoal and ore as long
as you have any, or as long as you wish to keep up the work, maintaining
the blast furnace always full, or continuing in this way until the bottom of
the blast furnace is filled with melted materials. Decide this byjudgment,
or by seeing through the mouth ofthe tuyere where the wind ofthe bel¬
lows enters that they are level with this. Then with an iron tool open the
hole that was left as an outlet in front ofthe blast furnace and allow all the
metal with its slag to run out.These two things, flowing through the chan-
PIROTECHNIA BOOK in 154
nel like an oil, enter the large forehearth into which all that is in the blast
furnace is allowed to run out completely. Then, when the masters see
that the forehearth is well filled, they plug up the hole ofthe blast furnace,
put new material in again, and continue to smelt.
The melted material that entered the forehearth separates by itself, the
coarse and earthy parts remaining on top and the subtle heavy ones sink¬
ing to the bottom. These earthy parts do not stand long in the air before
they begin to harden. Then, with an iron fork with a wooden handle one
and a half hraccia long, strike it hard so that it is detached all around and
floats, then place the fork under the comer that seems most convenient
and lift it out. Whatever metal it contains is allowed to run out, and when
it is cold, it is thrown aside all in one piece. In this way, as it cools, the slag
is lifted out layer by layer until the clear metal is reached and no more slag
can be seen on it.
Now this metal that is in the forehearth is of three natures: the two
principal ones are of copper and lead and the third is ofsilver. The two
finest and heaviest ones, that is, the lead and the silver, separate again from
the [53 ] more earthy nature ofthe copper and they go to the bottom while
the copper remains above and begins to cool. Do with it just as you did
with the slag, lifting it off layer by layer until you arrive at that leaden
part which does not cool so easily as the coppery, showing the clarity and
great fluidity that it contains. Then open the hole ofthe forehearth and let
it run into the ditch that is customarily made near by, and let it cool in
this. This is the part that contains silver, and it is rich or poor, depending
on the content ofthe ore. This thing is called work lead* in Germany and
the coppery part that was taken out on top is called matte.
* Work lead is covolo or couolo, matte is confrustagno. The English equivalents are pro¬
vided chiefly on the basis of the context. Possibly confrustagno is crude copper or any
copper-rich material in process, not necessarily matte. Although Biringuccio attributes
covolo and confrustagno to Germany, no German words resembling them have been found.
The terms used for matte by Agricola {De re metallica, Index II, 1556 edition) are the same
as in modern German, stein or lech. Work lead was and is werck.
The word confrustagno may be Spanish in origin. Perez de Vargas (De re metalica,
Madrid, 1569) uses the word confrustaho not only where he is translating Biringuccio but
also when following Agricola where the Latin is no more specific than “cakes melted out
of copper ore.” This would indicate that Perez was familiar with the word in this mean¬
ing. Elsewhere, however, he says (p. 1371;) that “the corfrustaho, which is the coppery
material we parted from the silver in the last chapter [on liquation ofcopper-lead cakes],
should be reduced to fine copper so that it can be worked and resist hammering, because
it is like glass in that by touching it breaks and shatters easily.” This is clearly a reference
to exhausted liquation cakes, which would contain lead but not much sulphur. Birin-
CHAPTER 4 SMELTING PRACTICE 155
Continue in this way until the supply ofore prepared for the day or for
the week has been consumed. Save that kind of metal that I told you is
called matte and that called work lead, for I shall teach you in its place
how to bring each to its final perfection. It would be useless in this form
because it is more brittle than glass.
I think that this same way of collecting all the smelted material in the
forehearth should also be used in smelting with reverberatory furnaces in
order to separate the slag from the metal. However, ifI had to do this and
I wished to use the reverberatory method, I would try to find a way of
separating the slags from the metal in the furnace itself. Then when these
were clean I could take them out through the taphole or arrange that they
run out by themselves as they melted continuously. In any case, my aim
is to separate the earthiness from the metal in some way.
But since you have not been able to perform any more than the separa¬
tion of the earthiness by the method of the first smelting, this is not
enough to suffice, although it is very important, for the metals that you
have extracted are all united and bound together as reduced substances in
one body and it is necessary to proceed along new paths for their separa¬
tion and division.
As I have already told you, the mass you have made of the matte or
work lead is copper, lead, silver, and perhaps also gold, if by chance the
ore contains any. If they should remain in this condition they would be
useless, and it is therefore necessary to come to the process ofseparation.
This is needed not only for ores, but also by those who wish to purify old
slags or to reduce the sweepings of a mint or a jeweler’s or goldsmith’s
shop. Since there are various methods for this, I shall describe in the next
chapter the most powerful one; it is not very difficult, and it gives much
more profit than any other way that I know or that has hitherto been dis¬
covered. There are some who use quicksilver in the purification ofslags
and sweepings. Although it is of great service in such things, this is very
expensive and it would be necessary to have very much ofit in working
guccio does not use confmstagno at this stage ofthe process, but seems to limit it to direct
smelting products,
Barba {El Arte de los metalles, Madrid, 1640) says that in some parts of Spain copper
matte is called confrustano, but does not otherwise use the word. This may indicate that
Barba knew Perez’ book. If so, it is very likely that the descriptions of amalgamation
contained therein played no small part in the development of Barba’s amalgamation
process for the treatment ofsilver ores. These sections were copied by Perez from both
Biringuccio and Agricola.
156 PIROTECHNIA book hi
large quantities ofmaterials. In addition, this method requires much train¬
ing and work, and it cannot be used for everything, nor [53v] is it suit¬
able. I should not use it except where there was gold or where the expense
welljustified doing it this way.
THE FIFTH CHAPTER
The Method ofSeparating Leadfrom Copper and,
with This, Extracting Every Particle of
Silver or Gold That It Contains. I TOLD you above that you should save the melted material that you
extracted by smelting the ore. In substance this is copper, lead, silver,
and perhaps gold, but all are like substances mixed in one body with¬
out any distinction. Now ifyou wish to separate these and to reduce them
to their pure qualities, it is necessary to proceed with each one according
to its own methods. Now in this method ofseparating lead in order to
extract the silver and gold from the copper, it is necessary to return to the
smelting and to follow one oftwo methods.*
The first is to smelt it again with the addition oflead or lead ore, and to
make it all run through the channel into the large forehearth that was
made in front ofthe blast furnace, and, as it cools off, proceed to remove
layer by layer with the fork, as I told you before and as you did the first
time, until the work lead is reached. Then you assay what you have ex¬
tracted and see whether it contains silver. If you consider that it has
enough per hundred to justify the expense, return it again to the smelting.
Continue to do this until you have extracted all the unctuousness and the
work lead still remains. Ifit contains little or no silver, you must be satis¬
fied with your work; otherwise return it again to smelt, always accom¬
panying it with lead or galena and do as you did the other times until it
* In the first method the material melted in the blast furnace is allowed to separate in the
forehearth into copper- and lead-rich layers. The separation would be very incomplete
unless the lead were reduced and the copper left as sulphide. (The distinction between
sulphide products ofmelting and the metals themselves is never very clear.) In the second
method, the one most commonly employed, the mixed metals containing about 62.5 to
66.7 per cent lead are cast directly into cakes and these are subsequently heated to a dull￾red heat to allow the lead, bearing the precious metals, to liquate, leaving behind a copper
skeleton.
CHAPTER 5 SEPARATION OF LEAD, SILVER, AND GOLD 157
remains free from every trace ofsilver or every other companion ofvalue
except copper. Set aside the metal in these thin crusts and I shall tell you
in its place what you are to do with it.
The other method is to smelt the aforesaid metal and work lead to¬
gether, with the addition of enough lead or galena to surpass by an equal
amount, or by at least two-thirds, the whole quantity of copper that is in
the body of the matte. When melted this is made to pass into the fore¬
hearth merely in order to cleanse it ifit should contain some slag, then it
is tapped and sent to the near-by ditch. It is allowed to rest there, and
before it is wholly cooled a little iron ring is put m it so that it can be
weighed. Cakes of 200 or 250 pounds each are made. These are made
continually as long as the material lasts.
After this [54] an oblong place is made of bricks in the form ofan altar,
but not quite so high. Its upper surface is made offlat stones or iron bands
which are brought together with an inclination toward the middle so that
at the junction of the two sides they form a channel by being separated
half a dito or less. In this place six or eight ofthe aforesaid cakes are stood
up on end, or as many as the size ofthe place permits, with a distance of
four dita or a little more between them. After these are arranged in this
way, they are surrounded by a grate ofiron bars crossed so that the spaces
between them are not so large that the charcoal it is to hold can fall
through. Ifyou do not have a grate, surround it with brick ends* or other
loose stones in the form of a little furnace. Fill all the empty space above
with good charcoal and light the fire. As soon as these cakes become hot,
depending on the increase ofthe fire by itself, you will see clear and lovely
lead run out of them and into the bottom of that place where you wdl
have made a large forehearth as a receptacle to receive the lead as it runs
down through the channel. Proceed to take it out ofthis forehearth with a
little iron ladle and put it in other small moulds that hold about twenty or
twenty-five pounds each, and continue to make these as long as the least
drop of lead issues.
You should know that in the lead thus extracted there must be all the
silver and consequently the gold contained in those masses of copper and
lead. The material that remains among the charcoal and ashes is an arid
and dried material similar to pumice or other poor porous stone, but in
substance it is copper and it is once more returned to the blast furnace to
* teste di mattone, literally heads of brick. The phrase is most often used to describe old
bricks laid in an open fashion as a sort offurnace to retain coals but allow passage of air.
158 PIROTECHNIA book m
be resmelted and then assayed again. Ifit is found to contain silver, it is
given another rinsing with lead in a similar way; ifthis is not enough, it is
given a third and a fourth and as many as necessary for extracting its
entire silver content. Then this material is smelted and formed into those
thin crusts in the forehearth ofthe blast furnace as you know how. After
this it is placed in a roasting furnace with charcoal and wood in superim¬
posed layers. This is done once or twice until it is seen that it contains no
i P = II’ 11
3
=1 A
Figure i6. Hearth for the liquation ofcopper-lead cakes.
further trace oflead and that the material is disposed to be reduced to fine
copper. You will save this by itself and also the little lead cakes that you
made. To conclude; all the silver and gold contained in the ore that you
smelted is in the lead alone, and the copper is in the form oftrue copper,
so that each one ofthese is in such a form that it can easily be reduced to
the final quality ofits purity.
In speaking ofsilver and its reduction to fineness, I shall first tell you of
the small-scale method so that you may better understand the large, which
I will then describe. This is a procedure that is truly an ingenious and
splendid discovery, especially that of[54^] mixing the copper with lead in
order to extract the silver and gold that it contains. As the result of its
property ofnever uniting with things dissimilar to itself, although mixed
with them, it runs out with even the smallest fire and leaves empty the
place where it was. It behaves in the same mamier with silver and gold,
but its separation from these requires a greater fire and greater art, as I
shall teach you fully with the act ofrefining.
CHAPTER 6 CUPELATION OF GOLD AND SILVER
THE SIXTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Method ofRefining Silver with the Cupel
and ofMaking Exact Assays of the Silver and
Gold Contained in Masses ofMetals.
A LTHOUGH I have already described to you the procedure for mak￾ing assays ofthe ores (a thing that is not very different from what
JL jL I wish to describe in the present chapter), I shall repeat it in sub¬
stance, with the addition ofthe method of assaying gold, in order to tell
you certain rules for weights which are very necessary to know, and above
all in order to demonstrate to you the method ofrefining a small quantity
ofsilver by the use of a cupel, and in order to tell you how there are (I
find) only two ways that are customary for bringing silver to fineness.
One is that of the cupel [copella] and the other is that of the cupeling
hearth [ccnneraccio], one for a small and the other for a large quantity. But
although they are called by two names and appear to be two methods,
the aim and the procedure ofboth is actually the same. Nor do I know of
other difference between them than the carrying out of the method and
the large or small quantity.
Cupeling is a very useful thing for anyone who handles gold or silver to
know. Indeed it is necessary, because it not only throws light on the work
that is to be done but it also shows the truth [55] and the correct weights in
large quantities. It is a quicker and easier way ofbringing the work to the
desired perfection than is afforded by the method for large quantities.
Therefore, as you have heard, it is used in making assays in order to know
exactly what quantity of the substance ofsilver or gold is in copper and
lead or in ores, as well as in that melted material which remains among the
charcoal and ashes. In short, it is the measure by which you have the cer¬
tainty and safety ofknowing that you have not been deceived by art or by
your workmen, who had no other interest than their simple wages. Many
workmen are found who are so untrustworthy that they no sooner get
control of a thing than they think up some fraud, and even though some
know that they must give an accounting they do not restrain themselves,
although sometimes they would perhaps act with greater security and
more deception than they do if they did not fear detection. For, truly,
since silver is a valuable thing and every bit is worth much, a man should
not enter into refining it with closed eyes. Iffor no other reason this pro-
i6o PIROTECHNIA BOOK III
cedure is useful, indeed most useful, since without its help one cannot
rightly sell or buy, or receive from or give to another. Certainly no mint
master, jeweler, or goldbeater can practice his art well without cupelation
unless he places his faith in needles and touchstones or in the green patina￾tion or other similar shadows ofthe thing he seeks to know. But the true
and surest way is this ofthe assay; and I am therefore not sorry to repeat it
now in part, so that you may be able to use it in every detail.
I have already told you the method of making the little furnace for
assaying and also what the cupels are made of and in what way and how
they are arranged and provided with lead in the little furnace. Now, so
that you may lack nothing ofthis most important work in order to do it
perfectly, I wish to show you the scheme ofweights and to teach you be¬
fore everything else how to divide the small [i.e., assay] pound and prop¬
erly proportion it to the common one oftwelve ounces in order to know
by means ofthe mensural art how much silver or gold is contained in the
hundred or in any other quantity of ore or of metal. In order to do this
you must suppose each pound to be divided, or indeed actually divide it,
exactly into twelve ounces, and one of the twelve ounces into another
twenty-four parts, and one ofthese twenty-four parts (which is a penny¬
weight) is divided into another twenty-four parts (which are grains), and
one of these grains is divided in half, and every half into anotlier half,
which is a quarter ofa grain, and this, too, is divided in halfand* becomes
a sixteenth of a grain, and ifyou wish, this is also divided in half and be¬
comes a thirty-second.
Then as the small pound, a quantity of any desired weight is taken,
being careful that it is such that the small assay balances with the beam￾lifting device can easily carry it. Let us say that you have taken the weight
of three pennyweight; you suppose this to be the pound of twelve
ounces. Then take the sample ofthe tiling that you wish to assay, either
copper or low-grade silver, [551^] by cutting from it with a chisel in three
places, at both ends and in the middle. Then counterpoise it exactly
against the weight ofthree pennyweight that you have made. Then, ifyou
have not done it before, flatten it out on an anvil with a hammer and
make it thin. Then apply fire to the little furnace and put in the cupels to
become red hot, and provide them with lead free from every other metal,
as you know how. When you see that this is clear put in the copper or
* The remainder of this sentence is omitted from the 1678 edition, doubtless because
the printer could not agree with Biringuccio’s arithmetic.
CHAPTER 7 CUPELING HEARTHS FOR SILVER i6i
whatever you wish to assay; and you will reduce it to fineness by making
the lead fume. When this has been done and you have neatly taken it
from the cupel with a little pair of tongs, put it on your assay balance,
drawing up the beam-lifting device very slowly. Counterpoise it with the
weights that you divided before and with the pound as I taught you, make
your arithmetical calculation. You will find the true content in every
weight and quantity just as ifit were actually handled.
Afterwards, a convenient quantity of this sample of fine silver having
been weighed, it is hammered out and attenuated with aqua fortis as I
shall tell you in its place. You have it eaten away in a little cucurbit and
the gold that is left at the bottom is washed, dried, and weighed. With
the same reasoning by which you found the amount of fine silver in a
pound ofthat copper, you find how much gold there is in a pound ofthe
silver that you have assayed.
You must take care that according to the rule taught you, you have first
proportioned the small weights to the large ones customary in your
locality. Thus in every place and with any quantity large or small you will
always be able to know exactly the true content of silver or gold, pro¬
vided that you always do it very carefully.
THE SEVENTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Methods ofMaking Cupeling Hearths
for Refining Silver in Quantity.
UST as I have taught you to refine silver in a small way and to make
assays, so now I wish to teach you how to make cupeling hearths in
c/ piace of these little cupels when you have silver in large quantities.
This is done in four ways, as I have seen, but all are alike in the end and
differ very Httle one from the other.
There are some who make use ofa furnace with a vault built with bricks
above the cupeling hearth. There are some others who use in place ofthis
an iron hood like a large cover. There are some others who use only heavy
dry sticks of oak or some other thick wood. Others have certain long
plates ofterra cotta that cover the whole hearth in three or four pieces; the
two of these that adjoin have [56] a hole in the middle that leads exactly
into the middle of the cupeling hearth, and through this they put in the
material and the lead, according to the practice I shall describe.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK III 162
But let us return to the discussion ofhow cupeling hearths are usually￾made. Every master would like to make them enduring, because he has
to make them often in his metal shops and he makes them according to his
wishes or abihty or the large and small quantities treated. The differences
between these ways are the methods used for keeping the furnace hot so
that they are effective. The cupeling hearth itself is that which holds the
materials and which causes them to refine the silver with ease and to purge
it ofevery other companion that it contains, except gold.
Now in order to do this, a convenient place is usually first chosen where
a water machine or some other means ofdriving the bellows is erected. In
front ofthe mouths oftheir tubes, in a spacious place so that one can go
around it, a round brick wall is made on the ground like a wheel; it is
two-thirds of a braccio high from the ground, as large in diameter as you
wish, with a notch cut out at the side, as you will see drawn. There are
some who then take a wooden hoop four good dita or a little less high at
the edge, almost as large as the circumference ofthe wheel, and put it on
top of the surface of this wheel and fill it with well-baked, sifted, and
somewhat dampened wash ashes.* The ashes are pressed and consolidated
well within this hoop and given a somewhat hollow form in the middle
like a plate. Then when they wish to work, sifted wash ashes or ashes
especially quenched with water and well leached are likewise taken, made
into cakes, dried, and sifted again. In order to do this better there are
some who bake them twice again and then wash them so that all their
saltiness may be the better quenched. Then the necessary quantity ofthese
ashes is taken to make the cupeling hearth small or large as desired and
with them is mixed a quarter part of well-washed river sand, together
with some brick dust or crushed tiles, and they are composed by mixing
* cennere di hucato, elsewhere cennare da bucato, etc., literally ashes used for the (family)
wash. Biringuccio’s use of the term seems to be unique, but there is no doubt that he
means precisely wood ashes after they have been used for washing clothes. The use of
ashes for this purpose continues in Italy to this day, especially in rural communities. Ashes
ofbeech, elm, or poplar (not oak or chestnut for these make spots) are placed in a loosely
woven hemp cloth over a tub ofsoaped clothes and warm water is poured over them,
extracting alkali and the finest particles ofinsoluble ash which doubtless serve to whiten
the clothes. The operation is repeated three times with intermediate soaping and is fol¬
lowed by rinsing in clear water and drying. The ashes may weigh as much as 15 per cent
ofthe weight of the clothes at each operation. The residue would provide a convenient
source ofwell-washed wood ashes suitable for use in cupeling hearths.
Johannsen translates cennere di bucato as laugenasche (lye ashes) and Vincent as unqualified
cendres.
CHAPTER 7 CUPELING HEARTHS FOR SILVER 163
all these things together well with the ashes. And just as you did with the
others that were put there, moisten them first and then spread them out
on top of those, thus filling the circle well with this composition to a
thickness offour dita. Press it in well with the hand and then with a round
live stone or something ofwood or with a hammer made for this purpose
with a round end as large as the fist. Striking it very softly, press it together
with a certain patience and skill so that it will not break, first going around
the edges and then in the middle until it is very hard and from four dita has
become two in thickness, giving the bottom the shape of a smooth plate
that gently descends toward the center. Continue to make it by striking
and rubbing with a damp cloth or by scraping or cutting with an iron
tool wherever necessary, in such a way that it becomes all polished and
clean without blemish. Take care that it is equally sohd all over, [561^] par¬
ticularly in the middle, and that it is not cracked in any place, for if by
chance it should happen that it were not all solid and clean, I advise you to
make it again so as to be more safe. When, however, it has been well
baked, some treat it with salt water, some with ashes and egg whites, and
some with crushed brick, lime, and white of egg. When this has been
done, the joint in the hoop is opened and it is taken off. Then the hearth is
strengthened outside with more ashes or brick ends so that it may be
protected from the blows ofthe logs when they are placed on the hearth.
For the same reason it is better to build a projection around the wheel.
When this has been done, the whole thing is well covered with charcoal
and fire is applied in the middle so that it gradually kindles it all over. It
is left thus to bake out well, for I must remind you that ifit were not well
baked out it could bring you trouble, for some ofthe silver spits out when
boiling, and there is also danger of chipping and breaking in some part of
the hearth. Sometimes, because of this inconvenient spitting out, it is
necessary to abandon the work unfinished so as not to lose the silver. Thus
in order to bake it with greater safety than in the first fire, charcoal must
be added and a second fire applied, especially in the actual place for the
silver. In truth, not less than eight or ten hours of a good charcoal fire
are necessary for it to be well seasoned.
I also wish to warn you that the form and composition ofthe cupeling
hearth are to be made differently according to whether the materials that
you wish to refine are coppery or leaden. For the hard ones, it must be
made harder (by using more sand or bricks) and flatter. For the soft
materials they are deeper, although this makes it more difficult to take out
i64 PIROTECHNIA book ra
the litharge, for much more ofthe hearth is cut away than in the flat ones.
The very leaden materials give up litharge with great difficulty ifthey are
not very hot.
Now that you have completed the bottom of your cupeling hearth,
make a bricked vault over it, or place on it a hood ofiron, or oflogs, or of
whichever ofthese things best allows you to fill the hearth gradually but
completely with big pieces of charcoal. Then apply the fire, having first
arranged one or two pairs oflarge bellows which are moved by a water
machine or by man power, with long tubes and extensions to make a
blast that strikes the surface of the hearth so that when there is melted
metal in it their blast touches it all over.
Then take of the lead that you mined, or some other, three times the
quantity ofthe material that you wish to refine, and put it near or on top
of the logs that you have put in the hearth and allow it to run down
gradually. When you see that it is melted and very hot, slowly begin to
play the bellows between the hood and the charcoal and put some long
pieces of oak wood above the hearth transverse to the blast, near the
mouth of the bellows, and then continue to apply the blast gently for a
long time, always keeping the hearth hot and well covered. It will not be
long [57] before, through those flames from the wood, you will see the
lead become first blue, then black, then suddenly as clear and shining as a
star. Then you take the required quantity ofthe work lead or other mate¬
rial that you wish to refine, such as the lead you extracted from those
large cakes of copper that I told you to save, and, putting it on top ofthe
logs with charcoal, you cause it all to run down and fall in the middle;
take care above all that the bath is very hot and arrange that it be kept so.
Continuing in this way, the lead becomes thin from the force of the fire
and changes into a liquid like oil and, just as on the sea waves are formed,
so does the wind ofthe bellows toss this to the edges. This is copper and
lead, for thus the fire transforms them. When they have been transformed,
the workers who see this let it run out gradually by cutting away a part of
the hearth obliquely with a bent iron tool, and they take it out. This is
that thing which they call litharge. Before it cools it is a thin liquid that
forms little by little by the conversion ofthe lead and copper until finally
this substance is found in their place. Since the pure silver has already col¬
lected at the bottom of the hearth, when you are about to reach it, no
more litharge is taken out even though there is more, lest any ofthe silver
come out with it. But with good wood a strong and powerful fire is
CHAPTER 7 CUPELING HEARTHS FOR SILVER 165
brought near to it, and the lead is made to evaporate in fumes with the
blast. While doing this, look at the silver to see whether it flashes with a
coating ofvarious colors in which black predominates; when you observe
that there is so much that you can scarcely see the silver, new lead must be
added because this indicates that it is not yet well purified. Keeping your
work always hot in this way, continue as I have told you until you finally
recognize that the silver is free from copper, or whatever other trace of
Figure 17. Forming the hearth of a large cupeUng furnace.
impurity it had, when you see it become still by itself and very white.
Thus you will have brought your silver to little less than its final perfec¬
tion, more or less so according to how liberal you had been with the lead.
This is the method for refining silver when it can be done with the work
and art ofthe cupeling hearth.
When this is finished, the silver can rarely be taken out from the hearth
cleanly so that no ugliness or trace oflead remains on it. Because ofthis, it
is almost always taken out while still hot and, ifit is a large quantity, an
attempt is made to break it before it sets or to cut it into several pieces with
large knives and then to draw it to greater purity with lead again in one or
more large cupels. Or, without putting it in a cupel, some melt it with a
little ground glass or saltpeter, in a crucible ofiron or clay in a little wind
furnace, giving it a good fire. Then they cast it in cakes or bars as they
wish.
In order to tell you now how much I have seen so that [sjp] I may ad¬
vise you better and at greater length, I shall make yet another discourse.
166 PIROTECHNIA book m
As I have already told you above, I saw refining done in Germany with a
little furnace that had a brick vault instead of a hood. Around this six
masters stood taking out the litharge at six httle windows. This hearth had
three large bellows with long, thick tubes and double tubes, and at the
Figure i8. German cupeling furnace with a brick dome. Note the valve
(vintula) on the bellows, and the roller [ruzzuolo) to
facilitate handling the logs.
opening for the egress of the blast each one had an iron valve which
opened when the blast came out and, falling back when it did not, closed.
As far as I could understand, these valves served to protect the inside of
the body ofthe bellows so that when they inflated no burning coals could
enter and bum them, and also these obstacles at the mouths caused the
blast to strike more in the center of the bath. Furthermore, they were
made so that they could send the blast here and there and make it reach
wherever it seemed most needed.
It was made of bricks underneath where the bellows rested; where the
tubes entered there was an opening like a window about one hraccio high
and one and a half wide. On each side a large roller was fitted into two
iron rings, and on it was placed the end of half a log offir or other thick
wood, four or five hraccia long. When this was pushed a distance equal to
CHAPTER 7 CULPELING HEARTHS FOR SILVER 167
the diameter ofthe cupeling furnace, it was easily sent inside. These were
the pieces of wood that they used. This seemed to me a very fine tiling,
but thinking further about it, I realized that such a way could not serve
well except in large and continued operations as in those places where
Figure 19. Cupeling hearth with iron hood.
twice a week, or at least once, 150 or 200 marks ofsilver at a time were
worked and reduced to fineness. They worked thus in refining in the
Emperor’s plant in Innsbruck.
[58] The other method, with the iron hood used for covering the cupel¬
ing hearth, pleases me much more because the fire can be better restricted
and the bath kept hot, and with this either little or much can be refined as
the master pleases.
Figure 20. Cupeling hearth covered with clay plates.
i68 PIROTECHNIA book ni
As I told you before, cupeling hearths are also covered during the
melting with certain plates ofterra cotta three dita thick, one-half braccio
wide, and as long as the hearth. I like these much more than some ofthe
other methods I have seen used, because the plates come closer together
and keep the heat in as it decreases,
[581^] A similar thing is also done with oak logs, but not so well nor so
easily.
Because it is necessary to consider so many things and to have so much
caution in order to make the work perfect, one who has not seen by ex¬
perience or who has not first been very well advised can protect himself
from the inconveniences only with difficulty. However, you must know
that ifthere is tin in the silver or lead that you are to refine, you will en¬
dure much labor in bringing it to fineness. The way to purify it when this
happens is this; The fire is applied with force and the bath well heated.
When it is seen to be very hot, some charcoal dust is thrown in and the
bath is made to swell up well by blowing with the bellows. Then the
charcoal dust is lifted off gently with a piece ofchestnut wood, and as it is
drawn out the tin comes out with it. Without this the tin lies all wrinkled
up in the bath and does not spread out with the thinness that lead does.
Furthermore, if it should happen that the hearth should boil because of
too much heat, [59] remember to separate the logs or to stop the bellows
enough so that it cools.
Also, ifit should happen that the bath is very coppery as are the residues
of ores, Htharge, or slags, take care to defer the removal ofthe litharge at
CHAPTER 7 CUPELING HEARTHS FOR SILVER 169
the beginning until the hearth has accumulated a certain amount of
litharge because this makes the coppery materials soft and for this reason
it is harmful to remove the litharge. Therefore take care that the cut in the
hearth is narrow and sloped a little. And strike the point ofyour iron tool
often so that it does not become thickly encrusted.
Always keep near you one or two pieces of chestnut wood and also
some that have a bit of dampened cloth bound to the point with a Httle
iron wire so that you can hold it against the aperture and stop it up when
you see that more litharge wishes to issue from the bath than you would
like, or in order to moisten from time to time some part ofthe hearth that
has become soft from the lead, or in order to moisten some hard place
that you wish to cut so as to do it more easily. Remember, too, to make
the hearth similar to the materials, that is, soft if they are soft and hard if
they are hard. With every hearth that you make, remember to scrape the
bar on the logs often and make the burning charcoal dust fall onto the
bath, especially ifthere should be no litharge at the edges, for you will see
it appear at once.
Continue thus until the degree offineness is attained that the cupeling
hearth is usually capable of. Ifyou wish to force it a little more when you
are at the end, prepare one or two logs that have not been in the fire and
that are very dry, and put them on the hearth so that they cover the silver
very well. Then put in a quantity oflead again, as much as you wish, and
cause the silver to reappear. When you see them united, skillfully stir
them with a slender chestnut stick and unite them and then, very gently
applying the bellows and fuming the lead, you allow the silver to become
very clear. When this has been done, and you see that it is finished, take
off the logs, lift out your silver, melt it, and free it from the hearth ashes
as I have told you before.
It remains for me to teU you how, in removing the used cupeling
hearth, you must take care that none ofthe ashes from the logs that often
remain on the hearth are mixed with those well-baked and well-disposed
ashes that you put underneath for remaking the composition of the
hearth, for this would spoil it. Keep in mind as an important thing to re¬
member never to touch your bath with a cold iron tool, with charcoal
that has not been kindled, with wood, or with damp things, because this
would increase your labor in bringing it to its end, and would perhaps
bring you loss instead of gain. Therefore use your diligence and prudence
in every detail.
170 PIROTECHNIA book m
[5H the eighth chapter
The Method ofConverting Matte into
Fine and Malleable Copper.
AVING demonstrated to you above the practice of bringing
silver to its ultimate fineness and perfection, it now remains for
me to describe how the two kinds of metals that are found in the
smelting product that you made from the ores are to be brought to their
end. One is copper and the other lead, and perhaps a third is gold, ifper¬
chance the silver that you refined in the cupeling hearth contained any. It
would be almost impossible that it should not contain any, because either
a little or a lot is almost always found as an admixed substance not only in
silver but in every one of the other metals as well. But in order to con¬
tinue in sequence, you must suppose that there is some gold and that, of
the two materials you have that I mentioned above and told you to save,
one is the matte (calling it according to the usage ofGermany,* since I do
not know a more exact or better word for describing it to you) and the
other is the litharge that you took from the cupeling hearth. In addition,
the hearths themselves are saturated and full oflead. Ifthese things should
remain in their present condition they would be useless bodies without
any perfection.
First, taking one ofthe three said parts, as a material ofgreater quantity
and also as a thing that needs greater labor, and because, being reduced to
the point I have told you with smelting and evaporation, it is nearer to its
end, I shall teU you what must be done in order to bring it to pure copper.
As I have told you, there are two materials on hand, one ofwhich is the
matte and the other the litharge. Each at first sight seems a half-burned
thing; one has already been finished metal and the other is to be, but in
my opinion the matte is nearer to its end than is the litharge because the
latter has been dried by the power ofthe fire and re-formed from another
Now leaving aside the discussion ofthis thing, after the matte has been
well evaporated and reduced, it is taken and put on a forge. In front ofthe
tuyere a receptacle is made ofstones that neither calcine nor melt, or of
coals and powdered clay, in the form of a little cradle that is longer than
it is wide and not very deep. Its length should be about one and a half
* See note, page 154.
CHAPTER 8 REFINING COPPER 171
braccia and its width three-quarters. When this thing has been very well
made in this way (whether ofstone or of charcoal dust and clay), it must
be well baked with good charcoal. When it has been baked well, a ring of
movable rocks must be made around its mouth as a retainer for the char¬
coal, with which you then fill it well up to the top. When you see that it is
well kindled, proceed with one or two pairs of bellows to melt your
material in this vessel until it is well filled, and give it a long melting, tak￾Figure 22. Hearth for refining copper.
ing care that the blast ofthe bellows is borne by the tuyere in such a way
that it always grazes over the metal, that is, that it strikes [60] the front
edge exactly. As I have told you, this material, although it melts quickly,
needs to be kept molten for a long time in the fire, and the blowing ofthe
bellows should always be continued in order to give the great fire and the
blast a chance to evaporate well that trace oflead which the material may
contain. Fresh charcoal must be substituted often and it must be stirred up
frequently with a piece ofchestnut wood* or an iron bar and well cleaned
of all the slag and earthiness which was in it. It is customary to wet it on
top several times with cold water from a little broom or something else in
order to modify the strength ofthe charcoal.
When this has been kept in the fire as long as seems right to you and you
see that those fumes oflead no longer evaporate when it is uncovered and
that the flames of the whole fire are live and of pure charcoal, then un-
* Biringuccio does not seem to realize the essential importance ofthis poling operation,
which is to reduce the oxygen absorbed during the first stage ofrefining.
172 PIROTECHNIA book m
cover it and see whether it is clear, shining, and purified as you wish.
you have no other assurances, take some out with a stick or an iron tool
and test it by eye and with the hammer. Ifit is well reduced, cleanse it of
earth, ifany has dropped on it, and then scatter a little water over it with a
small broom. At this you wiU see that it immediately forms a cold skin.
Then you will strike it in the middle with a little iron fork, raise it by one
side and, putting the fork underneath, hft it off. Thus you will proceed to
take it out ofthis vessel layer by layerjust as you did with the slag from
the blast furnace and then with the matte.
You will thus have very pure and beautiful copper. This is that which is
called rosette copper and which comes from Germany in rough cakes.* In
order to enable its being worked with a hammer this still needs to pass
through another smaller crucible, if for no other reason than to make
cakes in moulds so that it can be reduced under the hammer, or for mak¬
ing bronzes for guns, or statues, or for coloring to brass, and also for
making metal for bells, and for hammering in a mint where copper coins
are made, as I shall tell you in their places.
[6op] THE NINTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Method ofSmelting Litharge
and Reducing It to Pure Lead. IT is not very necessary for those who work ores to return the litharge
to lead, because they use litharge in place oflead ore and they use it
the more willingly when it still contains some trace ofsilver. For the
cupeling hearth can never be so well made or so cleanly operated that
some little bit ofsilver does not remain in it, and some particle ofit is also
necessary by its very nature. But for one who has to use very much lead at
one time, like someone who smelts sweepings or cements, or for someone
who wishes to bring his operations to a conclusion and withdraw his in¬
vestment, it is possible to have the lead again.
In order to do this, the litharge is taken and ground. Cupeling hearths
are washed in addition to being ground. Then these powders are made
into a paste by wetting them with salt water, and they are made into large
* migliacci, literally “millet puddings,” applied to these rosette copper crusts because of
their granular surface. See note, page 72.
CHAPTER 10 VARIETIES OF CHARCOAL 173
balls like cakes. They are put to dry and then are passed with the melt to
the blast furnace as ifthey were an ore. When it has been thus passed, all
the lead and slag that has issued from the furnace is collected in a recep¬
tacle whose mouth is made at the foot of the blast furnace. In this it is
freed from slag and then all the lead is left to cool in a cake, and plates or
other small cakes are made according to the wish ofthe masters. But since
this has been in the company ofsilver it must be assayed in order to see
whether by chance it contains sufficient silver value to justify the expense
ofextraction, so that the most valuable part is not lost through ignorance
or negligence.
Thus, as you have seen, you have now separated into their own state all
three ofthe metals that you originally had in one mass. It now remains for
you to extract the gold from the silver, ofwhich I shall speak in its place
in the following book. Here, however, it appears very appropriate to tell
you of charcoal since this seems to me a very necessary thing for the pro¬
cedures offire.
THE TENTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Properties and Differences
ofCharcoals and the Customary
Methods ofMaking Them. I HAVE already described to you many kinds offusions and fires and
still have many to describe ifI am to guide you, as I intend, among the
operations of these processes. In all these, quantities of charcoal and
various kinds ofit must be handled continually and it therefore seems to
me necessary to tell sometliing about charcoal for aiding you in these
processes. Without it artificers could scarcely bring their works to an end,
because it is the food that nourishes the fire both for smelting and for
softening the metals, or for calcining or drying things out. [61] It is a very
powerful means and not only is its fire used for many more works than
other fires, but it is also essential. Although there are many other things
that make fire and would make it, I do not know of any that are better
adapted for this purpose, or that can be more easily procured in large
quantities, than wood and charcoal.
For, as you can see, very great forests are found which make one think
174 PIROTECHNIA book m
that the ages ofman would never consume them in such uses, especially
since Nature, so very hberal, produces new ones every day. But what need
is there to speak of quantity? Are not the mountains seen to be covered
with trees, the valleys full, and the plains occupied? Do not wild trees
oumumber even the leaves ofdomesticated ones, and the areas occupied by
trees exceed perhaps those that are free? Certainly I beHeve that men [will
be unable to smelt] more as a result ofthe lack of ores than because they
are unable to use fire on account of the great consumption of such mate¬
rial. Besides trees, stones that occur in many places have the nature oftrue
charcoal; with these the inhabitants of the district work iron and smelt
other metals and prepare other stones for making lime for building. But
now I do not wish to think ofthat far-away fuel, for we see that Nature
provides things for our every need, and she always generates an abun¬
dance oftrees, ifnot in the very same mountains as ores then in those near
by, as ifshe offered them in aid because she knows that many are needed.
Charcoal is among the most important materials for smelting and it
especially should be of good quality. For this reason I tell you that, in
making charcoal, attention must be given to the differences between the
woods and also to the manner ofmaking it, so I intend to describe both of
these.
First I shall tell you the differences between woods, concerning which
every experienced man must be well informed. Charcoal made of vigor¬
ous and powerful wood must be used for all those operations that need
long, live, and powerful fires, and not that ofsoft wood, because it would
not serve. Ifone should make charcoal and make it ofsoft wood, it would
not serve well when there was need of a strong and enduring fire. Like¬
wise, the strong will not serve in place of the soft. Where flames are
wanted, as in reverberatories, charcoal would be useless, and it is therefore
necessary for this purpose to have wood from trees that is seasoned and
dried instead ofcharcoal. For strong charcoal, certain kinds ofwood ofan
earthy nature are chosen like that ofthe oak, cerris, holm oak, elm, beech,
and other similar large and hard trees. The soft charcoal is that which is
made from all wood that seems to be most domesticated and to contain
more ofthe airy nature, like that ofthe fir, willow, elm, alder, walnut, and
others that are of a softer and weaker quality.
All charcoal, as is evident, is nothing other than a true woody substance,
hot and dry, [611^] transformed by virtue ofits introduction into the fire,
which dries out the greater part ofthat airy and unctuous humidity con-
CHAPTER 10 VARIETIES OF CHARCOAL 175
tained usually in every wood, even though it has been kept for a long time
in a dry place or in the sun after cutting, or in a furnace in the warmth of
the fire, in order to make it very dry. That humidity which is never sepa¬
rated from the wood until it has been transformed into ashes makes
flames and makes it possible to introduce and maintain the fire inside. In¬
deed, it is the very virtue ofthe elemental substances that have produced
the wood, for the natural fire is increased by the accidental and devours
and converts them into itselfifit reaches them.* But the humidity which
is not well mixed in the thing flies away in vapors and changes into smoke
and makes other flames which are nothing except smoke that bums be¬
cause ofthe great heat gathered together. The earthy part remains finally
as ashes.
What I have told you about wood, I shall also tell you about charcoal.
Although this does not make as Hve flames as does wood, unless they are
forced out by union with much and powerful wind, its fire is without
doubt more vigorous. The reason for this is that, since it is freer from
humidity and more united with more live forces, the air penetrates less, so
that the fire, as actually happens, is more easily introduced there and
comes nearer to the thing in a manner more united both in power and
action. Therefore it is obvious that wood unaccompanied by charcoal is
useless in smelting where the blast of bellows is used. Moreover, as I have
told you, the artificer must choose the wood and charcoal appropriate to
the products that he is to make.
Now, then, the same reasoning must prevail in making charcoal, for if
such things were not observed, the perfection ofthe desired works might
easily be lacking, and the labor would be increased, together with the
expense and uncertainty of obtaining the desired wealth. For instance, if
you should wish to smelt gold, silver, copper, or some other metal, and
should take broom charcoal you would labor in vain. Likewise, ifin iron¬
works they needed to boil a somewhat thick iron and should take charcoal
ofwillow, fir, poplar, white poplar, or similar trees, they would not have
the force to make it boil, even ifthey should burn two whole cartloads of
it. And, in short, charcoal from the chestnut, broom, or other trees of a
similar nature is ofno use to the smith.
Speaking now ofthis in general, I tell you that not all trees are good for
making charcoal, although in some places where there is a scarcity ofgood
ones, you cannot and should not be too particular, for you are forced to
* Italian unclear.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK m 176
use whatever you can have, even though there should be a great waste.
Furthermore, every tree that is good by nature does not always make
good charcoal; granted that the goodness ofthe wood is not always suffi¬
cient, for it is also necessary that it be well prepared. One often sees char¬
coal from the same wood that is baked more or less. A very great differ¬
ence results when it is made by one procedure or the other, and when it is
covered with one kind ofearth or another during the baking. [62] A great
difference is also observed depending on whether the wood is young or
from an old tree, whether it is clear or knotty, whether it is cut live and
vigorous and more at one time than at another, whether it is made ofdry
and decayed boards, and also on whether it is green or dry and well sea¬
soned. There is also a great difference if charcoal is made from those trees
that grow in high mountains where the sun has surrounded them with its
powers or from those that grow in valleys or in dark and marshy places.
The opposite is true for those who need wood that makes flames, although
the coals and flames that they make are more fuU ofvigor. Some do not
believe this at first sight, but by experiment they find it to be true. The
real reason is at once evident; namely, that the wood does not bum that
comes from the mountains where the sun has had the power to dry and
condense that combustible humor which trees contain and to shrink the
pores. The fire, finding them thus, then enters through them with diffi¬
culty, and the humidity that is inside cannot easily exhale through the
small and narrow pores. Indeed, they are consumed almost without
flames. This does not happen with those woods from the valleys or
marshes. When the fire has chased from them that superfluous, cold, and
watery humidity which they contain, the wood remains aU porous and
empty. The fire, vigorously penetrating through them with ease, causes
the wood to burn almost as ifit were dry, even though it is newly cut.
Now, leaving the discussion of wood and returning to our subject, I
shall tell you of charcoal, although I am sure that you are not ignorant of
what it is, and also of how necessary it is since it is the very soul ofmany
works offire. It is a very well-known fact that it is charred wood. Among
its other properties, it is a very lasting tiling and disposed to maintain its
good condition not only for years but for centuries if it is kept in a dry
place; it is preserved even in a moist and damp place, but it is then not
good for use in works offire because ofthe moisture that it absorbs, for
it drinks in water as ifit were a sponge. Because ofits durability, architects
often lay it in foundations ofbuildings where the ground is not very firm.
CHAPTER 10 VARIETIES OF CHARCOAL 177
and some use it as markers at the boundaries ofproperty. I remember that
I once saw it dug up from certain ruins where it was estimated that it had
been underground in that place for more than four hundred years, and it
was still undecayed with the form of charcoal as ifit had been put in that
place only yesterday.
Now I wish to teach you the methods ofmaking this, so that when you
need some in any place, you can order it made. There are two kinds.
Figure 23. The construction of charcoal piles.
The first and the best of all is that called appagliaro charcoal.* To make
this, a level place is chosen convenient to the wood that is cut up for
the process, ifthe bed is not level, it is made so, and is given a round form.
Four large poles are set up in the middle in a square, or three in a triangle,
which make an empty space oflittle less than half a hraccio. Then proceed
around these, covering them upwards, [62v] circle by circle, with all your
cut wood and with chumps split into smaller pieces, building it in the
form of a round pyramid or a haystack, from which it takes its name. If
you wish to make good charcoal, the wood should have been dried at
least six months or a year.
Proceed thus to stack piece on piece with certain intervals until you
have arranged the width and height that you wish the charcoal pile to be.
The middle space between the poles is left empty up to the top. When
this pile has been made, it is well covered all over the outside with fern
leaves and broom and then, on top of these, it is plastered well from the
top with good, firm earth, as dry as it is dug up. This plastering is made a
*i.e., charcoal made in piles like a haystack.
178 PIROTECHNIA book m
palmo or a little less in thickness, very well prepared and sealed so that it
may not breathe except at the top where ten or twelve vents are left as
outlets for the smoke and humidity contained in the wood and earth. This
done, the fire is thrown to the bottom ofthe httle hole that you left in the
middle between the poles, and certain Httle dry parts of small branches
and dry leaves are put on it so that they fill it up to the top or as far as
necessary for the fire to spread throughout. Then this opening is also
Figure 24. Charcoal-burning in pits.
closed over with earth and only the vents are left open. In six or eight days
the whole charcoal pile gradually takes fire and bakes. When it is seen that
the vents cease to give offstrong exhalations it is to be believed that it is
baked. Then, with the same kind of earth, seal the top and all around and
in every place so that none of the vents can breathe at all, and the fire
inside immediately suffocates and dies out when it finds itself without
respiration. Thus your wood is converted into wholly spent charcoal
without ashes or any humidity.
Ifyou should not wish to leave it to cool, but should want to have it at
once and should, in fact, open the pile, you would find it spent, and you
would be able to take it out by simply lifting away one side of the earth
cover which you made for it, even though it would perhaps not be very
easily handled because ofits hotness.
[63] There is still another method for making charcoal. The usual way
for this is the one that smiths follow in making it ofbroom or ofchestnut,
and that makes it harder but smaller. In order to do this a hole is made in
CHAPTER 10 VARIETIES OF CHARCOAL 179
the ground about one and a half hraccia in diameter and ofabout the same
depth. It is fdled, indeed it is heaped up full, with broom roots or small
pieces of chestnut or some other wood. A space is left in the middle from
the top to the bottom for lighting the fire. The rest ofthe space that is still
uncovered is filled with fern or broom and then with earth just as I told
you above is done for the large charcoal piles. Proceed in the same way in
applying the fire and also in extinguishing it, but because it is a small
quantity, it is well baked in eight or ten hours after the fire has been
lighted. The charcoal thus made is for the smith’s forge. It is not good for
smelting even though it be made of good wood, especially if the blast
from powerful bellows is not used, because it does not burn like that
made in the pile on account ofits hardness. But when the fire is once in¬
troduced there, it continues very well.
In conclusion: charcoal which is to be called good must be made of
good dry wood that is well seasoned, and baked but not burned, because
it then becomes small and weak. Ifit is rightly baked it is thick and strong
and, when struck with another piece, is as resonant as glass. Therefore,
whoever has to work with it must take care that it is good and attend to
the processes ofmaking it as I have said.
To conclude: all charcoal works more easily and the fire is better intro¬
duced in it ifit is replaced under cover as soon as it has been made, so that
it may not absorb humidity from the air or from water by standing out¬
side. For when the fire enters and wishes to enter there it becomes windy
and gushes out as its infuriated enemy, and the charcoal breaks and is lost
in sparks, as everyday experience shows.
oun|..MD
.'aunimodfeltfujoKead)
fv •- 'I rr^ 1 ^ V. •
'la^iWiil.ertv Liya jmii.y. i^lW '* "“^'y ’f*”' i^afcoil
[63v] preface to the fourth book of
PIROTECHNIA
Concerning the Separation ofGoldfrom Silver and
the Bringing ofGold to Its Final Perfection.
HAVE previously demonstrated to you as well as I knew
how in what way ores are treated and then how the sepa¬
rated metals are brought to their pure and ultimate hmit of
perfection by means of smelting and other artificial fires;
all except gold, which remained incorporated in the silver.
Because the method used for the others does not serve for
this, and ifindeed it did serve it would be a great labor and could not be
done without a great loss ofthe thing, it is therefore necessary to proceed
with the practice of another art if you wish finally to extract gold from
the bonds ofthe intrinsic substance ofsilver, for it exists bound and scat¬
tered in this like the soul in the body ofliving creatures. In this, unlike the
other works where you make direct use ofthe vigor ofthe fire, you use a
substance that is like water, drawn by the force offire from a very power¬
ful composition oftwo materials.
This is a very marvelous thing to consider as a hquor because of its
powerful effects. It is made by artificial distillations and it has an acid
property and the power of corroding and reducing into itself silver and
any other metal placed in it, with the exception of gold. Nothing is
apparent in it except a pure water. It is indeed a very ingenious thing for
which we must be greatly indebted to that philosopher, alchemist, or
whoever else was its discoverer.
The silver that contains gold is put in this water, and from its former
quiet state you will see it change as ifforced to combat and breathlessly
devour and consume that silver in itself and change it into water. This
happens in a very short time and with very little help from the heat ofthe
fire. All the gold that was united in the silver you will see like sand at the
bottom, and when the water is taken off by decantation it will freely give
you all the gold without any loss. Nor is it so ill-mannered as to fail to
restore the silver to its place ifyou wish; and though it seems to have con¬
sumed and spoiled it as it was before, it returns it to you without loss.
Since the process ofthis art is a very useful thing for anyone who knows
i82 PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV
how to use it well, and also in order to follow in every detail the under¬
taking that I have begun, I do not wish to fail to describe this thing to you
in full. First I wish to tell you the method ofmaking these acids effective
and powerful so that you may bring your work to perfection easily, and
then to teach you the method of proceeding to do the work with this,
calling your attention to the greatest obstacles that may appear in your
path, and also to teach how the assays are to be made for gold, and, in
short, every ordinary practice that is required for giving perfection to gold
by means of art, cementing it and reducing it to its [64] true and exact
color, insofar, however, as my short and feeble wings can spread.
CHAPTER I DISTILLATION OF AQUA FORTIS 183
THE FIRST CHAPTER
The Method ofMaking Common Parting Acid. IF you wish to make the acid that is vulgarly called common aqua
fortis,* for parting gold from silver, you must first provide as many
cucurbits and alembics, receivers, and materials as you wish, and
then make a furnace that is long and conveniently wide for holding three
or four pairs ofcucurbits or as many as you wish. Ifyou have to make this
by art in order to work a large quantity, you could make several small
furnaces for it seems that not more than three or four pairs are suitable for
one. Prepare the places where the cucurbits are to stand with bottoms or
covers made ofpotter’s clay or tiles that are halfround like the bottoms of
the cucurbits and have a little rim around the top so that they can be built
in. Proceed to build these in in pairs, one by the other with convenient
spaces between, placing an iron support across to make this place stronger
and more secure. In every corner and also in the middle a hole must be
made as a vent for the smoke, as is done in all furnaces. You will see the
form ofthis somewhat roughly drawn here. [Figure 25]
Near this prepare a number of cucurbits which are made of glass, as
clear and uniform as possible and very well formed. There must be no
bubbles or other indentations in these, for they would be dangerous and
uncertain for your work. Lute these with lutum sapientiae up to within
three dita or less from where the neck narrows. This lute must be spread
out well all over to the thickness of two threads or a little more. Then
cover and make them strong with this well-made plaster, and finally dry
it, taking care that there are no clefts or cracks such as clays are often prone
to make even though they be well prepared. For greater security choose
among these [641^] a clay that is lean and then mix it with at least a fourth
part or more of wool-cloth clippings and about an eighth part of wash
* Biringuccio follows the custom of his times in using the word acqua, literally water,
for any waterlike liquid. Acids in general were acqua acuta (sharp waters), but we have
used the modern term because it, like the old, describes a quality. On the other hand,
nitric acid seems inadmissible for acquaforte in spite ofthe certainty ofits composition, and
we have adopted the familiar latinized form aqua fortis as a suitable specific equivalent
that does not imply a knowledge of composition. Other acids mentioned by Biringuccio
are acqua acuta da partire (parting acid, the same as aqua fortis) and acqua di aceto stillato
(acid of distilled vinegar). We have followed this terminology rigorously except in cases
where unqualified acqua obviously refers to acid and we have so translated.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV 184
ashes, a quarter ofmule or horse dung, or that ofsome other animal whose
dung is dry. These things are all mixed together and beaten weU with an
Figure 25. Building a furnace for the distillation ofnitric acid.
iron rod. This is the composition that the alchemists call lutum sapi￾entiae, with which the bottoms ofthe cucurbits that you wish to use are
plastered and strengthened. There are some who put in crushed brick and
iron scale. In order to dry them a bench is made with many holes where
the cucurbits are put with their necks and mouths turned downwards.
Figure 26. Drying cucurbits after covering with lute.
Then they are all put to dry together in the sun, in the wind, or before the
fire, or in some place that is warm. When dried, they are taken for use as
needed.
CHAPTER I DISTILLATION OF AQUA FORTIS 185
Then take one part of very well refined saltpeter and three times as
much well washed rock alum. If it is possible to have it, some ofthat red
kind from the Levant or Cartagena is taken; ifnot, some from La Tolfa;
and if not, some of that white kind which has first been put in a pot or
some other vessel on the fire so as to exhale all its humidity. * Mix together
with these tilings an eighth part of the whole or less ofsand, rubble, or
crushed brick. But it seems better to me, ifyou have them, to use the resi¬
dues of aqua fortis once more. When this has been compounded with
these things (either coarsely or finely as you wish, for it does not matter),
fiU your empty cucurbits with it up to about four dita from the place you
have luted and put them in the furnaces in their places, that is, in the clay
covers. Do it in such a way that there are two dita ofsifted ashes between
the bottom ofthe cucurbit and the cover, and likewise fix them all around
with the said ashes and finish covering them up to the neck. Then put an
alembic on each one, fastened with fine pieces oflinen, with flour and a
httle ashes and egg white, or thin lute, making a little band ofit around
the neck of the cucurbit so that it is all well sealed. Likewise, at the nose of
the [65] alembic make another band which enters the mouth of the re¬
ceiver that you will place there, taking care that it is very well closed and
sealed. When you have put it there, fix in the mouth, against the nose of
the alembic, the end of a little spindle or some other stopper that can be
taken out and put in when it is necessary to evaporate, as you will hear.
Then put linen bands over every joint, wrapping them well and tightly,
with the aforesaid necks plastered so that they cannot breathe at all.
Take care also that every receiver is of glass and as large as possible, for
the larger it is, the safer it is. For ifthere should be many spirits in it and
they are heated with a great heat, there is less danger ofits breaking be¬
cause they are not restrained so tightly together and it is then not neces¬
sary to leave the hole with a stopper for evaporation.
In this way proceed to prepare all your cucurbits, for having spoken of
one I have spoken ofall. Then slowly apply a fire ofcharcoal and wood to
the little furnace until the materials and the furnace begin to be hot. Six
hours are enough, for you wish only that they liquefy. Then for another
six hours continue to increase the fire somewhat with wood and charcoal.
* Many other early recipes call for the use of vitriol in place of alum, or in addition to
it. The ingredients were usually dried before distillation to give a stronger acid. The dis¬
tillation would first drive over water and, at a higher temperature, nitrogen oxides that
would be absorbed in the water with the production of nitric acid.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV 186
Proceed thus to increase the flames every six hours until you see that all
the water and phlegm ofthe materials have disappeared and that they are
quite dry in the cucurbits. You will understand this when they begin to
color the alembics with yellow fumes. Then increase the fire again, apply¬
ing it strongly and fiercely for six hours with dry wood that makes
good and powerful flames. By the force of that fire you cause every in¬
trinsic and powerful spirit to issue from the materials. This will have been
done when the alembic is no longer colored by any smoky fumes, and the
alembic and also the receiver begin to cool. Even after you have all these
signs, continue the fire for at least an hour or more.
If you wish, you can put over the receiver a piece oflinen dampened
with cold water so that the wandering and airy spirits that are going about
through the body of the receiver will fall into the water when they feel
the cold. For without them this water would be without vigor and like
nothing, indeed worse than river water.
Then when everytiling seems to you to be well cooled and the cucurbits
and everything else are easy to handle, moisten all the joints ofthe cucur¬
bits and receivers with ordinary water, patiently separate the pieces, and
carefully hft off the receiver from the alembic and the alembic from the
cucurbit. Put the receiver, well sealed, on a kettle of cold water or in
some other cold place so that ifany ofthose wandering and airy spirits are
going about in the receptacle, they wiU be submerged in it. Let it rest thus
for three or four days. Then put the acid from all the receivers into one or
two and weigh it. It is better, however, that it all be in one until you have
purified it.
When it has been weighed, ifyou wish this acid to be good and to work
well [65^] it is necessary to add halfa pennyweight ofpure silver to every
pound ofthe acid.* In order to do this take one or two pounds or how¬
ever much you wish ofthis acid in a small cucurbit and add to it the entire
weight ofsilver (granulated or beaten with a hammer) that belongs to the
whole quantity of acid that you have made. As soon as this is in it, you
will see the acid begin to grow turbid and to make its power felt. Even if
you left it alone, it would effect its operation, but it wiU do it more
quickly and better ifyou put it over hot ashes. A short time after you have
* This treatment with silver is for the purpose ofremoving the hydrochloric acid which
is present in the aqua fortis from chloride impurities in the raw materials. Obviously, if
this is not done beforehand, silver chloride will form during the use ofthe acid, slowing
up the action and leaving much silver mixed with the gold residue.
CHAPTER I DISTILLATION OF AQUA FORTIS 187
put it there you will see all the silver dissolve into water. After it is dis¬
solved and the acid has been left alone you will see a grossness similar to a
very white chalk fall to the bottom. When this has fallen down and the
acid made clear with this substance ofsilver, decant it very slowly into the
receiver where the whole quantity of aqua fortis is. You will see all this
alter just as happened with the small amount. After it has stood a short
time you will see a coarse precipitate of a very white material like the
aforesaid one go to the bottom. When this has rested awhile and become
clear and has been slowly decanted into another clean receiver, the mouth
must be well sealed so that it cannot breathe. Keep it in one or more
receivers.
This now is the aqua fortis that is ready for the art ofparting and is to be
used for that purpose. It was imperfect without such a purification and
would not have served well, both because ofits slowness and because it
would have soiled the work. Put all the chalk or white residue that has re¬
mained in a receiver or some other glass vessel and set it aside, for I shall
teach you in another place the method ofextracting all the silver that you
put in it for the purification ofthe aforesaid acid. And do the same with
any good water that remains, even though it is but a little.
But in order that you may know more, even though I have given you
the method for making the said acid and that should suffice, I wish to tell
you again how it is made, not, however, with other minerals, but with
different weights, for some add more saltpeter and some less. There are
some who add a goodly quantity of vitriol, but I do not like this; some
others, considerable arsenic, for, from what they say, it is a good agent for
extracting all the spirits from the materials. There are others who do not
burn the alum first nor put in its company residues or sand or anything
else. But in this, in my opinion, they run the risk that the materials may
rise in the alembic and then run down into the receiver ifthey are not very
careful in the regulation ofthe fire. Some others do not collect the water
from the distillation, but take instead as much rain water as they judge
would be extracted from such materials. It can be said that for every
pound ofsaltpeter that was put in the cucurbit three pounds ofwater may
be added at discretion. They put this in the receiver when they see that the
spirits begin to rise in the alembic, and they close all the joints well with
lute or with the said paste and thus they force the spirits to sink in the cold
water,
[66] There are some others who take four pounds ofrock alum to every
i88 PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV
pound of refined saltpeter and without further burning put it coarsely
pounded into the cucurbit and they follow the above method in the dis¬
tillation. This, however, is much more expensive and not ofmuch greater
value.
Alchemists make infinite varieties of acids for their solutions and the
aforesaid minerals are the basis of all. It is indeed true that they add sub￾Hmates and various salts and other corrosive materials according to their
opinion.
In conclusion: it is not the waters, which are but phlegm, but the spirits
of these materials that are the things that operate. Certainly I have seen
some that were made by certain alchemists, friends ofmine, that not only
dissolve silver and gold but would also calcine diamonds, I surely beheve.
I also wish to tell you how all exhausted acids or those that are depleted
ofmaterials can be strengthened and remade by distilling the spirits ofnew
materials and causing them to beat inside. It can be done in this much
better and in greater quantities than in rain water, because exhausted
waters must have already worked very much, and they still have some
Httle vigor ifindeed they have not lost the spirits completely.
Now whichever of the aforesaid acids you may have made, they all
need to be freed of phlegm with silver and cleansed of that chalkiness if
you wish them to make your work perfect and good.
THE SECOND CHAPTER
The Method ofAssaying a Quantity
ofSilver That Contains Gold. Having taught you to make aqua fords and to cleanse and reduce
it to perfection, before I teach you the work ofparting on a large
scale, I wish now to teach you how to make an assay of the
amount ofgold present in a quantity ofsilver, so that you may proceed to
your work with open eyes in order to become aware of mistakes when
you have erred yourselfor have been deceived by someone else. Therefore
it is necessary to know very exactly, before you take it out, how much
gold should be in your cucurbits from the weight of the silver that you
put in. Thus you may see the gain or loss, ifyou had to deliver it to some¬
one else or ifyou had bought it. Ifyou did not do this you would proceed
blindly in your work.
CHAPTER 2 ASSAYING AURIFEROUS SILVER 189
First you must suppose that the silver that you wish to assay is fine; ifit
is not, make it so, either in the cupel or in the cupeling hearth. From this
bar or mass in the form ofcakes, however it may be, you must scrape with
a well-curved chisel a goodly quantity from the middle, above and below,
and on all sides, or wherever it comes off well.* Take some, and then if
you wish melt it all together [661^] in a new crucible or in a cupel with a
httle lead in order to reduce it to greater fineness, having first weighed it
exactly. Then weigh it exactly again after you have taken it out of the
crucible or cupel in order to see whether it has lost anything. Ifit was fine,
the same amount or very little less should return; ifit shows that it has lost
greatly, you must make up the difference from the whole weight. Now
you must beat this silver with a hammer on an anvil and make it thin so as
to be able to cut it better in order to make the exact weight;'thus the
arithmetical calculation later can be made correct more easily. Take one
pennyweight plus one-eighth ofa grain ofthat silver—which in aU will be
twenty-four and one-eighth grains, but your basis is to be only on the
twenty-four grains, for these are called the carats ofgold when it has been
brought to its ultimate purity and fmeness.
Then take a small cucurbit of a capacity of about one and a half tum¬
blers. This is called an assay cucurbit. Half fill this or a little more with
your aqua fords and put in it that little sheet ofsilver which you weighed.
This cucurbit is then put over hot ashes or some kindled charcoal. As I
told you before, you will immediately see this bod and the silver change
into the form ofwater, and you will see the gold fall to the bottom Idee a
fme black sand, untouched in its substance. Let this boil, however, until
you see that the water makes clear bubbles and that certain fumes so yel¬
low that they tend to redness come up through the neck ofthe cucurbit.
Then, because the water makes a sign that it no longer operates, lift the
cucurbit off the hot ashes and let it cool, for you wdl see nothing in the
httle cucurbit except green water and, in the bottom, that fine black sand
ofwhich I have told you. After you have let this water rest well, take it
out ofthe cucurbit a little at a time by decantation, and take care that that
residue of gold which is there does not come out with the motion ofthe
water. Then again take some ofthat aqua fords for parting, put it on the
residue in the Httle cucurbit, and replace this on the hot ashes. Make it
boil again until you see the residue, which was black, become yellow,
* A shocking method ofsampling! Ercker (1574) realized that segregation was Hable
to occur and tells how to obtain a good sample.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV 190
the color of gold. Then this acid is also decanted and taken out, and
each one is put in a cucurbit by itself and saved, because it is good to use
again in parting, as you will hear. Then have a quantity ofwarm ordinary
water and, pouring it on that fine gold sand which you have in the cu¬
curbit, wash it well three or four times, indeed, until you see that the
water comes off clear and without any saltiness or shadow of aqua fords.
Then again put in enough clear water so that when you turn the little
cucurbit upside down and raise it (closing the mouth with the end ofthe
thumb ofthe same hand which holds the neck) you cause it to carry all the
gold at one time into a cucurbit bottom or some other vessel of clay [67]
or of glass. After you have brought it to this place, wash it again with
more fresh water and finally, when it is well drained of these waters by
decantation, put it in a crucible or well-luted cucurbit bottom over hot
ashes or small coals to dry out, to remove all its moisture, and finally to
heat it so much that it well regains its yellow color. This done, weigh it
very exactly and with all possible care on your little balance equipped
with beam-lifting device, using your small proportional assay weights.
Then make your computations, taking the weight of gold that you ex¬
tracted from the thirty grains or whatever quantity you took, and in this
way find the weight in the whole quantity, for if you know how many
pennyweights are in an ounce, you can also know easily and with certainty
how much is contained in a pound and ultimately in hundreds ofpounds.
THE THIRD CHAPTER
The Proper Method ofProcedure in Parting
Goldfrom Silver in Quantity, Using Acid. Having described and taught you the method of assaying silver
for gold in the preceding chapter, and therein having proceeded
in the order and proper way followed in the working of quan¬
tities of gold and silver, I could have fled this task ofdescribing to you the
first part ofparting. In truth, there is no other difference in the method of
arriving at the end except in respect to certain precautions that must be
taken against the dangers causing loss. In order that you may guard against
these, I shall repeat the procedure completely, in addition to the second
part ofthis art, which is the method ofreducing the silver to its body.
CHAPTER 3 PARTING GOLD AND SILVER 191
As you can understand from the precautions, this art is subject to many
dangers causing loss, because every smallest error has much importance,
and it is impossible not to encounter some hindrance in many things that
you must do. For, as you understand, when large glass vessels, fragile and
inconveniently shaped, must be handled with a great weight of water
impregnated with gold and silver, they may easily break or spill and a
great loss results if even a small bit escapes, not to say all ofit; you must
know therefore that not only the extraordinary processes, but also ordi¬
nary ones would be robbing you if you are not careful. This happens in
the fires which exhale some subtle and ill-fixed parts and soil the purity of
the cucurbits and other vessels, so that by leaving a little here and a little
there, they bring shame and loss instead of gain to him who is not very
watchful and careful, and who does not work neatly and cleanly. If it is
not yours and you have to deliver that gold and silver to someone else, you
suffer the loss when you deliver it with less [671^] than the assay had
promised, and in addition your honor is touched, for he will also say that
you have robbed him of what is lacking. I wished to make this little di¬
gression before entering into the practical part so that you may be as care¬
ful as possible in your operations.
First, then, after your aqua fortis is perfectly made and freed ofphlegm,
it is necessary to have all the silver that you wish to part at least as fine as
from the cupeling hearth. Melt this in a ladle with bellows or in a clay or
iron crucible in a wind furnace. Then pour it into a wooden tub or
earthenware pot full of clear, cold water, scattering it slowly and finely
with a broom or other split piece of wood while the water inside is in
motion. In this way you avoid the labor ofhaving to laminate it with the
hammer and then ofcutting it into small pieces as would be necessary ifit
were not granulated. Then this silver, reduced into fine grains, is taken
from the water and dried of all its humidity in a copper kettle or some¬
thing else on the fire. Then after you have luted your cucurbits or not, as
you wish, put three pounds ofthis granulated silver in each one, and pour
in from nine to ten pounds ofyour aqua fortis. Put the cucurbit over the
hot ashes on your furnace made for the purpose, or in the same places
where you made the aqua fortis. Let this silver boil and dissolve into
water.
In order to preserve the water that evaporates in boiling and thus dis¬
appears, you could put an alembic over it and a receiver at the bottom for
collecting it, although the spirits that are very important do not evapo-
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV 192
rate. There are some Avho, in this evaporation, cause half or more to pass
through the alembics in order to Hghten the cucurbits and make them
easier to handle. There are some others who allow the silver to dissolve
with time without putting the cucurbits on the hot ashes, for it is always
dissolved in two or three days. Now it does not matter which ofthe two
methods you choose; both have the same result. When I have worked, I
have always preferred to put it on the hot ashes because it works better and
dissolves more quickly. The usual procedure is to let your acids boil until
you see that they become clear except for a somewhat green color, that
green and yellow fumes exhale through the neck ofthe cucurbit, and also
that the natural boiling subsides and diminishes. These signs then show
that the water has acted and used its power and that it has no more material
to dissolve. When this has been done, all the silver will be changed into
water and all the gold will have fallen to the bottom ofthe cucurbit like a
fme black sand just as you saw in the assay.
Then lift the cucurbit from the ashes and put it in some safe place or
completely put out the fire and let the cucurbit remain in place without
moving it. Then with your Httle glass funnel, decant it into other clean
and well-luted cucurbits, having first put a straw there or some other
slender little stick which reaches from the mouth to the bottom so that the
water in passing [68] down by decantation does not entrap any wind and,
bubbling, run over. You must take good precautions against this and
must also take all possible care that the smallest part of the residue does
not come out, for it is gold and would be lost.
Then, as you fill the cucurbits one after another (ifyou have more than
one) put them in their places in the little furnace and provide them with
ashes as you did when you distilled the acid. If the water in it has been
diminished by evaporation, put what remains in six cucurbits, in four, or
in as many as seems right to you, but take care to divide it equally so that
one does not have more than another,for in drying they would not dry
out evenly because one would dry out sooner than another. Perhaps you
would need to heat some aqua fortis and put it with the beak ofan alembic
into that cucurbit which lacked some so that they would all dry at the
same time. In those places in the furnace that you left empty by decreasing
the number of cucurbits containing saturated water, you could put some
with new materials to distill in order to make new acid; always continue
in this way.
Take out from the cucurbits those black residues [of gold] that re-
PARTING GOLD AND SILVER CHAPTER 3
193
mained at the bottom of them after you have removed the acids with
clear ordinary water. Collect them in a little cucurbit and by decantation
dry the ordinary water from them as well as you can. Then pour in as
much virgin and weU-purified aqua fortis as is necessary to cover up to
four good dita the residue of gold that you put in, and put this on the
furnace where there are hot ashes, making it boil with a good heat for the
space of an hour or more. When it has been there a short time, you will
see the black residue change into a beautiful yellow gold color. This done,
take the cucurbit from the fire and slowly take out the aqua fortis that
you put in to color it, and place this in the same cucurbit with the acid
that I told you to save when you made the assay, for it is good for
parting but no longer for coloring.
As you have seen, that tiling which has been up to now hke a fine black
sand in the bottom of the cucurbit is the gold that was in the silver.
Having extracted it, wash it well and carefully in the same cucurbit with
some slightly warm ordinary water, or in a glass pan or some similar
glazed vessel. Then after washing it with more clear water and drying all
the water from it, put it in a new crucible or other casserole of unglazed
earthenware and dry it over coals. Then put it to heat in the middle of a
live fire so that it may acquire its most beautiful and bright color. Then,
having brought it to this point, mix it with a little borax and put it to melt
in a crucible. When it is melted cast it into bars. Thus you will have aU
your gold reduced that was in the mass of the smelting product that you
took from the ore; for, as you see, of all the metals, only the gold re¬
mained to be reduced.
In this procedure there are some who, in order to avoid labor and save
time, wash the residue immediately after having made the separation ot
the saturated water from the gold, and, when it has been washed, they
melt it with borax without recoloring it. It does not matter how it is done
ifit attains its mark well.
But, as is very evident, [681/] you have pawned your silver to get your
gold, entrusted it to a fragile glass, and have also converted it into water in
order to spread it out easily. Therefore, you must try to restore its body in
order to make use of it in its original state. For this, it is necessary to
separate the subtle from the coarse parts by evaporation, making it boil so
much that all the liquid disappears and the silver dries out and hardens as a
residuum in the bottom ofthe cucurbit.
You would be in error in doing this, ifyou could and did not retrieve
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV 194
the acid that was made with so much expense and effort. Therefore, put
alembics on the cucurbits of silver-laden water which you have set in the
furnace and put receivers at their ends. Plaster up all the joints very well
Just as you did in the beginning when you drew the spirits ofthe materials
from the water, beginning with a low fire and continuing slowly with as
much order and care as possible. For in this procedure two results are
achieved, each one ofgreater importance and value than the alum and salt¬
peter were before. One is the recovery of the silver and the other the
preservation ofthe aqua fortis in its original virtue, retaining in it all the
force ofits spirits. Both ofthese things are done by applying to the aqua
fortis a strong and powerful fire to dry the moisture from it completely,
and then for four or six hours longer, not, however, in such a way that the
cucurbits or silver should melt, for this would not be well. Finally taking
away the fire, let it cool and, when cold, take it out by breaking the
cucurbit as neatly as you can. Then melt it in a crucible or ladle with a
httle crushed saltpeter, black soap, or borax. In this way you will have
restored to the silver its proper body in its greatest fineness.
The four metals that were mixed together and mingled in the smelt¬
ing product ofthe copper ore you now find all purified in separate forms;
first the copper, then the silver, later the lead, and now the gold—things
certainly very beautiful, useful, and most ingenious.
THE FOURTH CHAPTER
The Method ofRecovering Silver and Good Acidfrom
the Precipitatesfrom Aqua Fortis.
A LL that I have been able to tell you concerning the ordinary practice
/-A ofparting with aqua fortis I have striven to demonstrate to you as
jL jL briefly as possible. Now, before passing on to speak of other
things, I wish to teach you the method that you must follow in order to
recover whatever is good in those chalky precipitates ofthat acid and all
the silver that you put in; it was for this reason that I told you to save them
in a cucurbit by themselves. This is called “water ofwhites” by the master
parters, and in reality is nothing other than the precipitates of thick
phlegm ofaqua fortis, white as chalk. Ifthese were not extracted from the
acid, the spirits of the infused materials [69] would be almost without
CHAPTER 4 RECOVERING SILVER FROM WASTE 195
force, as if bound, and in the event that they should still effect the assays’
they could not do it perfectly. Therefore it is necessary to have recourse to
this precipitation.
But because fine silver is present and it is possible to work on this
residue only by decantation (even though no water remains), ifyou wish
to recover both these things completely, it is necessary to have a number
ofcucurbits and to take as many as you think may suffice for the material
that you have to half fill them. These cucurbits should have a long neck
and a wide entrance to their mouths. Proceed to fill these halffull with a
funnel or the neck of a broken cucurbit. Then put them in their places
on the fire to distill, packing the ashes around them or not, as you wish.
Set the alembic on top of them and the receiver at the spout, the whole
arrangement as is customary for distilling. Then with a temperate fire
begin to cause a part of the water they contain to issue forth by dis¬
tillation until the alembic begins to take on a reddish color from the
fumes. Then stop the fire, lift offthe alembic, and let the material cool and
settle well. Then remove it, and by decantation slowly draw offthe clear
water which will issue from the cucurbit, being careful not to shake the
cucurbit because all the good clear water will be on top, separated from the
chalk. All your silver is in this water;* therefore put it in another cucurbit
and replace the cucurbit of whites on the little furnace again in case it
should seem to you that there is still some water to be extracted. Do this as
many times as you see that there is water to be removed. Finally, return
the cucurbits to the little furnace and put the alembic on, fasten and seal
their seams well, and then apply a strong and powerful fire until you
extract all the spirits and make them render up to the water you distilled
before so that it becomes vigorous and potent. Throw the residuum that
will remain in the bottom ofthe cucurbit from these separations of chalk
on the pile ofsweepings where there are cupeling hearths, cements, and
things that contain a trace of silver or gold which you wish to recover
through smelting in the blast furnace. For these residues, too, cannot be
made so that they do not contain some.
* This is obviously wrong, for the silver would be almost entirely in the silver chloride
precipitate which Biringuccio calls “whites” or chalk. This silver is not wasted, however,
for the precipitate is preserved with other residues and sweepings to be smelted.
196 PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV
THE FIFTH CHAPTER
Precautions That Must Be Observed
in Parting with Aqua Fortis. IN order that you may be expert in every phase ofthis art ofparting, I
wish to caution you upon twelve points, all necessary, so that you
may know beforehand what may happen to you and what provision
you must make to obtain good results. Understand that the gain derived
from this art lies in carrying out the work that you wish to do accurately
and with profit, which means nothing other than working with certainty
and seeing that there is no loss of gold or silver [69^] or substance of any¬
thing that is valuable in itself For, since everything lost is silver or gold, it
is valuable however little it may be, and many little things obviously
make one large one; for gain increases gain, and loss, loss.
Therefore, you will have as your first task to seek to have the materials
that you are to use for making the aqua fortis of as perfect a nature as pos¬
sible. I tell you this because the saltpeter is often weaker and of worse
quality than the alum. For this reason it is necessary to make an effort to
have it not only well refined and free from earthiness but also of a nature
as powerful as pig-[dung] saltpeter, the color of which tends strongly
toward yellow. In order to work better, you also refme this again before
you put it to use, as I shall teU you in its place. Likewise, see ifyou can get
alum ofthe red kind that comes from the Levant or from Cartagena, for
it costs less and is more powerful.
Furthermore, see that you have a good number ofweU-formed cucur¬
bits of properly purified glass, not too large and of equal content and
size. Above all, see that they contain no indentations, bubbles, folds, or
scratches, especially in the body or m the bottom, because they break
easily and the nature and great force of the acid pierces them by eating
away, and makes a little hole. For this reason, cucurbits are always divided
into four grades; one is taken for making aqua fortis, another for drying
the waters when they are laden with silver, the third for recovering the
acids from the separations, and the fourth are either rejected as useless
or dangerous, or are saved for recovering the whites or for some other
service. Whoever wishes to practice this art well should remember to keep
a large supply of cucurbits, receivers, and alembics.
The third is the precaution which one must take in luting them; first, to
CHAPTER 5 PRECAUTIONS IN PARTING 197
make a lute that is good and made from a clay that is not viscous by
nature, does not crack through shrinkage on drying, and is fire-resistant.
Wishing to make good lute, it is necessary first to dry the clay well and
then to grind and sift it so that there may be no small stones or shells in it.
Then let it be moistened and well beaten with an iron rod and mixed with
a fourth part offinely sifted wash ashes, another fourth part ofwool-cloth
clippings and then some mule or horse dung. There are some who put in
Figure 27. Compounding lute and inspecting cucurbits for distilling.
some river sand or crushed brick, and others, iron scale. Finally, by beat¬
ing and kneading, thoroughly incorporate everything that you put in.
The fourth precaution is to see that the bottoms and bodies ofthe cucur¬
bits up to within three dita of the neck are plastered with this lute to a
thickness oftwo twisted threads. Let this be applied evenly all over. To do
this have a long perforated bench with holes wide enough to let the necks
enter. After they have been luted, they are put upside down in this to dry,
for otherwise it would be very troublesome to anyone needing a large
quantity.
[70] The fifth is to give heed to the furnaces; first to see that they are
well made and bricked up with good clay; that the covers or pots are
made secure and able to support the necessary weight, that they are ofcays
which resists the fire, and then that they are built with iron crosspiecle
under their places; and that the ashes or sand that are put in the covers are
sifted finely so that the cucurbits may absorb the heat more evenly and
may be better set in place.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV 198
The sixth is the regulation ofthe fire, a very important thing at the be¬
ginning, middle, and end, because it is the principal agent, and it is neces¬
sary to vary it according to the results desired.* In the beginning, it is to
be tempered and should tend toward too small an amount rather than
too much. Then it is increased until the extraction ofthe spirits from the
materials is arrived at or the drying ofthe parted silver. Everything must
be done for the safety ofthe cucurbits so as not to allow the materials or
Figure 28. Preparing the sand bath.
the silver to rise into the alembics and from the alembics into the receiv¬
ers, for this would soil the vessels and cause a loss. You must guard against
this by eye, watching the neck ofthe cucurbit. When you see that it rises
while boiling and you fear that it may overflow, remember to take away
the little stick or spindle-point [jov] that you put between the spout ofthe
alembic and the mouth ofthe receiver when you plastered the cucurbits
and let some of the steam out. You will at once see them subside and
return to the bottom. Thus reassured about this difficulty, close up the
opening again with the spindle.
The seventh precaution is never to put aqua fords that is too hot into
* As Thomas Norton {Ordinal! ofAlchimy, 1477) phrases it:
“A parfet Master ye inaie him call trowe.
Which knoweth his Heates high and lowe.
Nothing maie let more your desires,
Than ignorance of Heates of your Fiers.
Ofmanie Auctors written ye maie see,
Totum consistit in ignis regimine:”
CHAPTER 5 PRECAUTIONS IN PARTING 199
cold glass vessels, or cold acid into vessels that are hot, for they would
easily break in pieces.
The eighth; See that you always have in the room where you work a
large glazed earthenware vessel with a wide mouth, full of clear water,
where everything that you wash is washed. Near this, have a smaller more
portable vessel, also with clear water, and do all your handling ofladen
cucurbits or decantations above this, for it will give you a very great
security in case some laden cucurbits, through some ill-fortune, should
break while being handled, or, as sometimes happens, some drop should
spiU out. By means ofthis water you would find all your silver safe and
clean at the bottom, and you would lose only the acid. For one who does
not value his aqua fortis, this is the short way to recover silver after the
gold has been taken out, without so many fires and labors.*
The ninth is that you must throw on the heap of cupeling hearths or
other sweepings every broken glass or thing that you have finished work¬
ing with if it has served in any way where there was silver. Remember
never to use glasses for parting that have been used for making aqua fortis,
for however well you may have washed and cleaned them, this cannot be
done so thoroughly that they do not still retain some of that quality of
impure acid.
The tenth precaution; Since it might happen that a laden cucurbit
would break when you did not have the vessel of water underneath so
that it was all scattered over the floor, furnace, or other place, I tell you in
this event to lift away cleanly and well with a chisel or otherwise all those
places which you see or which you think the acid has touched in any way,
then crush it finely. Lastly make a cupeling hearth with a lead bath and
when you have made this very hot with charcoal, proceed to put in this
crushed material little by little and finally refine it in the usual way. In
this way, all that silver that you have been able to collect will be recov¬
ered. There are also some who, when such a thing happened to them, have
gathered up as much as they could and crushed it and made from it one
or more cakes. Then they had it passed with lead in fusion through the
blast furnace, as is done with sweepings. In either ofthese ways you will
find, ifnot all, at least nearly all that which many would consider as lost.
However, it is not a thing that is done without labor and expense.
The eleventh; When the gold and silver are in the aqua fortis (one Hke a
* This apparent dependence on chlorides in the “clear water” to precipitate the silver
seems a trifle optimistic.
200 PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV
fine black sand, the other indistinguishable to the sight and like a substance
entrusted only to a glass, yet this does not matter in regard to what I wish
to warn you of), you must know that in regard to the quality ofthe gold,
oftentimes [71] certain light particles of it go here and there, wandering
about in the water like atoms. Because these are tiny and subtle things,
they reduce the power ofthe water. You should use this as a sign to return
the cucurbit to the hot ashes to boil again. When you have boiled it a half
hour or less, or whatever you think best, take it offand put it in some safe
place to cool and rest well until you find that all the gold has fallen to the
bottom; if it has not, do the same thing again. Then, when you wish,
decant the water and follow the method given you. It is here that many
parters who are not careful often lose some weight ofthe gold that they
should obtain, although they do not really lose it because the water gives
it up at one parting ifnot at another.
The twelfth precaution is to know that, if cucurbits containing laden
acid have a little crack, they never dry even though they be luted in the
place where the crack is, but they always leak and make the lute black. I
advise you, as a sure remedy, to change cucurbits and rinse the broken one
with fresh parting acid and then with ordinary water as well, putting the
latter in with the other washings from coloring, and throwing the cucur¬
bit on the heap of other broken pieces.
It now remains for me to tell you ofthe method you are to use in recog¬
nizing when the laden cucurbits are free from acid and spirits. First, the
top ofthe alembic gives you a very clear sign, for it loses its colors. Ifyou
wish to be certain, lift offthe alembic and toss in a small lighted candle or
a little tow and observe. But even this does not always tell the truth, since
the cucurbits are often dry all around and have formed a skin on top, and
yet are moist in the middle which cannot be seen. But if you wish to be
sure, take a slender little stick and bind a little cotton at the top. Put this in
through the mouth and test the middle—besides finding by touch that it is
a httle tender, the cotton will become somewhat moist. Because this pre¬
cept is oflittle importance, it can advantageously be included among the
others given you for parting.
CHAPTER 6 PARTING WITH SULPHUR OR ANTIMONY 201
THE SIXTH CHAPTER
The Method ofParting Goldfrom Silver
by Means ofSulphur or Antimony.
As you and anyone else can understand, a great expense and a large
/-A supply of tilings are necessary for parting a quantity ofsilver by
-A. jL means ofaqua fortis. First, as you have seen, it is necessary to have
a great abundance of every kind of cucurbit and alembic, of charcoal and
wood, and a large number of pounds of a vigorous, well-purified aqua
fortis, because for every pound ofsilver there are ofnecessity [711'] at least
four pounds or more employed from the parting to the coloring of the
separated gold. It is also necessary to prove its fineness and to granulate or
beat it, to have furnaces and supplies, and to provide for a thousand other
necessities which need not be repeated now. The most important thing in
this art seems to me to be that it requires continual working night and day
with extreme watchfulness and care. For this reason another way, much
quicker, less dangerous, and less expensive than the aforesaid one was
found by some clever men (alchemists, I believe) in order to avoid such
laborious and heavy methods. It produces the substance of the thing
exactly as the acid does. Ifyou wish to make use ofit in conjunction with
the acid it is possible to render great aid to this work although there is a
great difference in the techniques ofthe two.
The method used in this parting is as follows: First, make a round or
square wind furnace for melting, below ground or above, and of height
and size in proportion to the work and as it comes out best for you. Then
take a large clay crucible and fill it almost up to the edge with that silver
which contains the gold, cut into pieces, and put it to melt with the silver
on top of a piece of brick cut to the size ofthe bottom ofthe crucible and
resting on a grate in the middle of coals that are burning well. When you
see that the silver has been made so hot by the fire that it looks white and
that it wishes to begin to liquefy, take a little stick ofsulphur or a small
piece of antimony and put it in. When this is melted, lifting away the
charcoal that covers it, put in more sulphur or antimony (for the method
is the same with either one) until the silver is very well melted and these
materials properly incorporated. Then for every pound ofsilver that you
put in add half an ounce ofsheet copper. When this is melted take your
crucible out with tongs or pincers and strike the bottom gently on the
coals two or three times so that the gold may make a residue on account of
202 PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV
its heaviness and fall to the bottom as the heaviest thing. Then by tilting it,
slowly pour out the melted silver into something, almost to the bottom of
the crucible, and replace the crucible on the fire. Put more silver in it and
in the same way more sulphur or antimony and, doing as you did at first,
continue until all the silver has been passed through a cooking with sul¬
phur or antimony and the gold is in the bottom ofthe crucible. In order to
free it better from the sulphur or antimony then put that gold in a cupelof
cupeling-hearth ashes. Finally, ifit should seem to you that it did not have
its beautiful color or that it were not wholly clean, beat it and give it a
Royal cement once or twice until you bring it to the desired end.
Likewise, when you wish to recover your silver, make a cupeling hearth
with a lead bath, and proceed to put in gradually all that silver corrupted
by sulphur, antimony, or copper. Refine it [72] as I taught you in its place,
purifying it very well from the sulphur and lead. Then assay it again and
see whether any substance has remained in it that justifies the expense of
doing it over. If there is, repeat it with sulphur and antimony as many
times as necessary, always adding some copper or base sdver, for the
nature of the sulphur and antimony always needs something to feed on,
and if it does not find anything ignoble and adapted to its needs, it at¬
taches itselfto whatever is there. Finally, when you find the silver cleansed
of gold, put it on the cupeling hearth and refine it. The copper that you
put there is put in for no other purpose than to keep the sulphur from the
antimony so that it will not consume the silver and also, on occasion, to
heat up the bath better and to make the material thinner.*
In this way, gold can be parted from silver, without acid and without
so much labor, as I have told you.
THE SEVENTH CHAPTER
The Method ofCementing Gold and ofBringing
It to Its Ultimate Fineness. I HAVE striven to demonstrate to you as well as possible the method of
bringing the metals ofyour ores to their ultimate perfection. But one
cannot always do with gold that is found in the ores what is done with
the other metals, for gold is not always accompanied by fine silver nor is it
* Silver sulphide has a melting point of 835°C., but a mixture with 30 per cent copper
sulphide melts at 677°C.
CHAPTER 7 CEMENTING GOLD 203
so accompanied that it can or should be treated by means of aqua fortis
without doing anything else. The practical philosophers therefore have
found a method using the force of fire and certain attractive minerals
with which they achieve a certain result which to me is surely miraculous,
for they separate a mixture of two or three metals joined together, and
one' uninjured in its form, remains deprived of the companions that it
contained.
But let us now leave this discussion. I tell you that in order to do this
you first make a httle furnace like those that melt by wind.* At the head
where the grating would be are one or two thick irons, one dito or more
wide, reaching across the whole diameter ofthe bottom. This should be
one and a halfbraccia high from the ground or a little more. Level with the
opening where the fire is introduced, make a little iron grating which
holds the wood suspended in the air and separated from the coals which it
makes in burning. This should be one-halfftrarno from the lower floor.
This done, take an unglazed pot or crucible or vessel of fire-resistant
clay ofthe size that you think you need. Then take well-sifted old tiles or
brick dust, having made a fine powder of the quantity you wish, and
one-third of the whole of finely ground common salt; both are very
well sifted with a sieve and mixed together. There are some who add to
this composition an eighth part ofvitriol, but usually the said powder and
the salt are enough, with the tiles.
* To aid in the understanding ofthis passage we reproduce as Fig. V in the Appendix
one ofAgricola’s woodcuts (page 367, 1556 edition) showing a cementation furnace that
answers Biringuccio’s description almost exactly. A self-stoking cementation furnace of
the athanor type is mentioned on page 357 ofthe present work.
The process ofcementing is ofgreat antiquity. Hoover [De re metallka, English transla¬
tion, 1912, pp. 458 seq.) quotes Strabo, Pliny, Theophilus, Geber, and others and discusses
the essentials ofthe process. There is an additional important reference, the first to describe
the use ofsaltpeter, in the Tractatus novae monetae in the Red book ofthe Exchequer. This
was apparently written in the year 1381, and reads in part, “In this way an assay of gold
ought to be made; in the fire for 3 days and 3 nights in a pot with a cement made of a
powder of good red tile and sale de Peyto [saltpeter?] added to it in four times the quantity
ofthe gold to be purified. In other words, to a pound of gold for purifying, containing
23 carats 3^ grains in pure gold as above, there should be added 4 pounds of cement, of
which i/yth or i/8th part should be of saltpetre and the whole remainder ofthe cement
of powdered good red tile. Thus, that is, when the gold contains more of alloy a greater
quantity ofthe salt is placed with it, and ifless, a smaller quantity, etc.” This treatise also
contains mention of a system of weights to eliminate calculation and calls for the use of
“sterile lead,” free from silver and other metals, in cupelation, which is described briefly.
The touchstone is mentioned but condemned as a method of assay, even in the hands of
experts.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IV 204
[721^] After this, have the gold that you wish to cement beaten and all
made into sheets as thin as paper. This done, a quantity ofthe said powder
composition is put in the bottom ofthe vessel and spread out in a layer.
Then a layer of pieces ofyour beaten gold is spread out above it, having
been first moistened in vinegar or in urine in which some sal ammoniac
has been dissolved, and it is then covered with the said powders. Proceed
thus, layer upon layer, putting in one layer of gold and one of powders,
until the vessel that you took is completely full, or until you lack gold to
fill it. Then it is covered with a lid made for this purpose ofa raw or baked
tile or some similar clay, and the whole is luted and dressed with lutum
sapientiae and dried out. The vessel prepared in this way is put in the
aforesaid little furnace on the two little irons that you built in crosswise at
the top. It is then covered over with a tile or flat bricks, well sealed in the
furnace and luted, leaving only two or three air holes at the corners as
vents for the fumes and breathing places for the flames. Fire is applied with
soft, fme wood, beginning with a little at first and then increasing it
gradually. It is continued for twenty-four hours, always taking care,
however, not to apply a fire so strong that it melts the gold and materials
together (for they would then not act; indeed your labor would be in¬
creased) but let it be only enough to keep the vessel always red.
Then, at the end ofthis time, slow down the fire—nay, put it out com¬
pletely—and open the little furnace from above. With tongs or pincers
take out the heated vessel as hot as possible. When it is out, open it by
lifting off the cover with tongs or some other method and put it aU into
urine or cool ordinary water. When it is very well quenched and can be
handled, wash off the cement that is on the gold with a small brush or
with the hand and make it clean. When this has been done, take some of
the pieces of gold, and, rubbing them on a touchstone, compare them
with the gold needle of the carat that you desire and see whether they
correspond. In case the gold has not attained this, repeat, giving it another
cementing or two with new powders in the way shown you above.
When your gold has been brought to the desired point after the first,
second, or third cementing, melt it with a little borax or a little sal alkali,
lime, or furnace ashes and cast it into bars or whatever form you wish.
This done, you will have your gold in its ultimate perfection and fine¬
ness, in that beautiful color which you desire, and in its true value, al¬
though it lacks that weight ofsilver or copper or whatever was its com¬
panion before. Even the silver is not lost because it remains absorbed in
CHAPTER 7 CEMENTING GOLD 205
the powders. In order to recover it, it is put with washings and other
remnants and finally is made into cakes and smelted in the blast furnace,
with cupeling hearths or other sweepings, as I taught you in its place
concerning the smelting of litharge. [73] In this way you will recover
from these all, or almost all, ofthe silver that was in the gold you cemented.
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PREFACE TO THE FIFTH BOOK OF
THE PIROTECHNIA OF VANNOCCIO
Concerning the Alloys That Are Formed between Metals.
S you have seen, I have hitherto demonstrated to you the
methods for bringing to their proper and pure bodies all
metals of any kind of ore that you have found and mined.
Ifthese did not now serve human needs all these operations
with so much expense and labor would have been profitless
and in vain. Therefore I recognize that it is necessary in
speaking to touch upon all their operations and to teach you to make use
of the metals according to the works needed. There are, for instance,
some metals that would serve poorly for certain works when reduced to
their fineness and perfection. Also, many artificers, in order to avoid
expense, are content with having a larger quantity of metals and do not
care so much about their perfection. For this reason they willingly accept
mixtures ofone metal with another, for example, ofsilver or copper with
gold, of copper with silver, and likewise of tin or lead with copper. Tin
is accompanied by lead to avoid spoiling its nature completely. All this,
however, is done with a definite proportion by weight and not by chance.
These admixtures, as I have told you in another place, are called in gold,
carats, and in silver, leghe. This, in fact, means nothing but the association
of one metal with another, indeed, a soiling of their purity and fineness,
to which they have been brought with so much hard effort and labor. But
now leaving this discussion, I shall tell you in the present book as briefly as
I can, in order, first ofthe alloying of gold with silver or copper, and then
ofthat ofsilver with copper.
208 PIROTECHNIA BOOK V
THE FIRST CHAPTER
Concerning the Alloy ofGold.
A S I have told you before, “alloy” here signifies nothing but the mix￾ture of one metal with another in friendly companionship.
Whenever you wish to do this, you should consider the purpose
that moves you, whether it is to increase the quantities, or for corruption. *
Then you should choose whatever has by its nature more affinity with what
you wish to alloy, or whatever is best for your purpose. Give it in the
melt the proportion that you wish or as much as it can support without
being entirely removed from its first nature, as [73 f] water is in wine or
white in black if too much is added. However, you must make the pro¬
portion with a defmite ratio by weight and not by chance in order that
you may bring your work to the degree ofperfection that you desire. For
he who proceeds with his eyes closed not only stumbles many times but
frequently falls.
Therefore you must know first that gold does notjoin in an alloy with
any metal other than silver and copper. Thus ifyou wish to make a work
ofgold or to have it made, and begrudge the expense ofhaving it fine, or
ifyou fmd that you do not have enough, or ifyou do not care about such
fineness, you must decide exactly how many carats less than perfectly fine
you wish it to be, or by what weight you wish it to be increased. In order
to do this, accurately weigh the fine gold that you have and accompany it
with silver or fine copper in the quantity that you wish to give it, and
melt both these things together very well.
So that you may understand the procedure better, let us suppose that
you wish your gold to be 23 carats. You are to imagine that the whole
quantity is twenty-four parts because this is the final limit at which the
gold can be perfect. Now ifthis were the case, you would put in one part,
which corresponds to one twenty-fourth ofthe whole quantity. You will
have taken away one carat of the value of its fineness and increased it
another in quantity. In the same way it will happen ifyou put in two or
three or four or six. Up to the limit ofone-half, you will always have gold
according to the denomination of the lesser virtue and the greater quan¬
tity. Surpassing one-half, so that there are eleven parts ofsilver and thir-
* Biringuccio uses this word [corruttione) in the sense of hardening, probably because
this desirable effect is associated with a proportionate loss of the malleability that was
regarded as an essential metallic property.
CHAPTER 2 THE ALLOY OF SILVER 209
teen of gold, it will be called silver of ii leghe* containing gold. And
so it is with copper, depending on how the assay or touchstone responds.
In this way proceed successively with both metals, designating the gold in
twenty-four degrees under the name ofcarats and the silver in twelve leghe
in order to know exactly the limit ofperfection of each.
THE SECOND CHAPTER
Concerning the Alloy ofSilver with Copper. Except for the material, the same method that you used in alloying
gold is used in alloying silver, but its alloy is fine copper.Just as the
silver does in gold, so copper in silver diminishes and lowers its fine¬
ness and increases its quantity. If halfthe value is surpassed it is no longer
called silver but copper containing silver, as I told you ofgold. But in my
opinion one could also say silver of 5, 4, or 3 leghe or even of one. How¬
ever, these terms are of no importance for our purpose. It is enough that
you suppose that the whole quantity of silver that you have is twelve
parts. Ifyou put one part ofcopper in this with the melt, you will say [74]
that you have ii-lega silver and that it is in weight thirteen of the first
partsf and so on, when you add two to ten and four to eight, always
naming the quantity ofthe fme silverjust as you did with the gold, either
* Lega (pi. leghe) is the same word as that translated elsewhere as “alloy.” There is no
exactEnglish equivalentforit as a unit offineness, though it is analogousto theTroy ounce as
a fraction of the pound. It was customary throughout Europe to express the fineness of
silver on a duodecimal basis, following the Troy units or the Nctherland mint weights
in which a mark (one-half pound) was divided into twelve units, denarii or pfennig.
Johannsen translates lega as lot. This is misleading for, although the lot or loth came to be
used frequently as a unit of fineness, it was the sixteenth part of a mark and not the
twelfth. It is just possible that Biringuccio was confused by the similarity ofsound and
really meant lot, for elsewhere he has shown poor understanding ofGerman, though this
is hard to reconcile with his evident familiarity with silver refining and assaying which
must have provided him with the correct Italian terminology. Nevertheless the word
lega is not encountered in other works in this sense.
Biringuccio is wrong in saying that ii-carat gold should be called ii-lega silver. If
expressed on the silver alloy scale it would he $^2 lega, since the basis oftwelve is used in¬
stead of twenty-four, and the amount of silver reported and not its alloy. The alloy is
actually less than halfsilver and is a poor example ofthe point under discussion.
I Biringuccio overlooks the fact that the alloy is 12/13 and not 11/12 silver as he sup¬
poses. Like many metallurgists today, Biringuccio was a poor mathematician and unwit¬
tingly illustrates the need for systems of assay weights to save computation.
210 PIROTECHNIA BOOK V
in the ratio ofpounds or as part ofthe quantity, calling the weights ofthe
divisions of the gold pound twenty-four carats and of the silver pound
twelve leghe.
THE THIRD CHAPTER
Concerning the Alloys ofCopper. IT is customary to make an alloy ofcopper in the same way, not to in¬
crease its quantity as with gold or silver, but to corrupt it for the art of
casting and to destroy a certain natural viscosity in it. For this result it
is accompanied by tin and also, sometimes, brass. But its proper and true
alloy is fine tin, except, however, when you wish to make hammered
works. For these, copper must be pure and without any trace [of im¬
purity], otherwise it cannot be hammered thin, gilded in the fire, drawn
into a wire, or made into vessels for use as is customary; but in casting, tin
is almost essential. When you come to this association, just as it changes
nature and appearance according to the proportion oftin which you give
it, so it changes name and is no longer called copper but bronze, or, for a
greater distinction of the quantity of tin for every hundred or more of
copper, it is called by skilled workmen metal ofmore or less fineness as it
contains more or less tin. This is recognized by the whiteness and brittle¬
ness: changing from red, which is the color of copper, it becomes white;
from soft and flexible it becomes hard and brittle as glass. This admixture
removes it so far from its original nature that one who does not know that
it is a compound material believes it to be one of the number of metals
engendered by Nature.
Now, so that you may understand well, I tell you that various kinds of
this are made, all according to the proportions of the quantities and ac¬
cording to the kind of work. For one kind of bronze is desired by those
who make statues; this is not desired by those who make artillery or by
those who make beUs, mortars, basins, and similar cast objects. Now in
order to alloy it into the species of bronze, eight, nine, ten, up to twelve
pounds oftin are put with every hundred pounds of copper. Those who
want it to make bells put twenty-three, twenty-four, twenty-five, and
twenty-six, depending on the tone, on whether they are large or small in
form, and on whether they wish to make the tone deep or sharp and clear.
From twelve upwards is used for aU other works that need it, either for
hardness or to give them fluidity in casting by surpassing the degree of
CHAPTER 4 ALLOYS OF LEAD AND TIN 2II
bronze. I shall speak to you of these things more clearly in their places;
here it is enough to have described the method of making the alloy. I
warn you to understand that it is the requirements of the work that de¬
termine the alloy. No other rule can be given in this [741^] except to tell
you that in regard to the weight you must use discretion according to
yourjudgment and experience.
THE FOURTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Alloys ofLead and Tin. IEAD and tin mixed together make an alloy through an attachment of
natural affinity which they have with each other, so that when they
are mixed it is difficult to recognize by the sight which one it is, if
the essences of their qualities are not surpassed by more than half. If,
indeed, one can be recognized, it is the tin which gives off a certain sharp
odor to the sense ofsmell, besides having a greater hardness and whiteness.
The best ofthese is the one that is the purest in its kind. In the alloy of
tin it is the one that is the whitest and hardest, or, when it is bent or some
thin end of it is held tightly by the teeth, is heard to crackle as frozen
water does. Because this happens more with this than with other metals, I
do not wish now to inquire into it. It is enough that it be a sign for recog¬
nizing when tin is pure or mixed.
Pewterers say that it should be joined in alloy with lead and that it is
better for working when it contains four or six pounds to the hundred
because it makes it softer to the hammer and more fluid in casting. But I
do not like to hear this, even ifall they say is true, for I see that the tin that
comes from England, when worked as well as in cakes that show it to be
pure, is much more beautiful and better in all works than is that made in
Venice. And I believe that it is not better for any work when mixed than
when pure, except for the advantage of the master who, if he does noth¬
ing else, sells lead that is worth little for tin that is worth much. I find that
when mixed it serves in only two things. One is when it is wished to
make a solder for copper, for use when it is not worth while to solder the
bottoms and large pieces of vessels with low-grade silver as should be
done. The other is when master potters calcine it in order to make
glazes and to apply white to their vases. I consider lead to be useless in all
other works of any kmd of metal, since it unites with none of the other
metals of good company except tin.
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PREFACE TO THE SIXTH BOOK
Concerning the Art ofCasting in
General and in Particular.
BELIEVE that my work would surely be almost a seed
without fruit and that I would fail in that cause which dis¬
posed me to satisfy your request to write and form this
work [75] ifwhile laboring on it I did not tell you ofthe art
of casting, since it is a necessary means to very many ends. I
realize even more that I must tell as much as seems neces¬
sary since I have already demonstrated the methods of recognizing the
natures and locations ofthe metals, ofsmelting and reducing them to their
ultimate perfection, and finally have taught you to make their associations
and alloys. It is especially necessary since this art and work is not well
known, so that no one can practice it who is not, so to speak, born to it, or
who does not have much talent and good judgment. For this reason and
also because it is closely related to sculpture, whose arms are the support of
its life, it is very highly esteemed.
In order to describe the whole art in every part, I say that the greatest
labors ofboth mind and body are required for its operations in the begin¬
ning, middle, and end. It is indeed true that these labors are endured with
pleasure because they are associated with a certain expectation ofnovelty,
produced by the greamess of art and awaited with desire, particularly
since the artificer sees that it is an art pleasing and delightful even to
ignorant men. As a result, as if ensnared, he is often unable to leave the
place ofwork.
To conclude: The outcome ofthis art is dependent upon and subject to
many operations which, ifthey are not all carried out with great care and
diligence and well observed throughout, convert the whole into nothing,
and the result becomes like its name [cast away].
Therefore, having considered this work many times, with its extraordi¬
nary obstacles and the bodily labors heavy as a stevedore’s, instead of
exalting it with praise, I wish to say that it is such that a man of noble
birth, even though he be gifted or be drawn to it by pleasure, should not
practice it and could not unless he is accustomed to the sweat and many
discomforts which it brings. He must suffer the great natural heats of
summer as well as those excessive and continuous ones from the enormous
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 214 _
fires that are used in this art, and likewise in winter suffer the moisture and
great coldness ofdisagreeable waters and unendurable cold. In addition to
this, he who wishes to practice this art must not be of a weak nature,
either from age or constitution, but must be strong, young, and vigorous,
so as to be able to handle things, as you almost always have to, that are
heavy and inconvenient because of their weight—things such as bronze,
iron tools, wood, water, clay, rocks, bricks, and the like. Nor do I doubt
that whoever considers this art well will fail to recognize a certain brutish¬
ness in it, for the founder is always like a chimney sweep, covered with
charcoal and distasteful sooty smoke, his clothing dusty and half burned
by the fire, his hands and face all plastered with soft muddy earth. To this
is added the fact that for this work a violent and continuous straining ofaU
a man’s strength is required, which brings great harm to his body and
holds many definite dangers to his Hfe. In addition, this art holds the mind
of the artificer in suspense and fear regarding its outcome and keeps his
spirit disturbed and almost continually anxious, [jsv] For this reason they
are called fanatics and are despised as fools. But, with all this, it is a profit¬
able and skillful art and in large part delightful.
Now wishing to tell you the method ofthe actual operations, I say that
the results of all the works offire are very uncertain because of their in¬
tractability. In this one, it is so uncertain that it appears to be more de¬
pendent on fortune than on ability or experience in the art, as its sudden
and unexpected accidents often indicate it to be. One cannot help with hu¬
man hands or have access to the very place where it is needed, either for
fear ofinjury by so powerful and furious an element, or because one loses
courage at the terrible sight ofthe flaming metal. These effects seem to be
produced by fortune because ofthe absence ofsome information necessary
for guiding the intelligence. Imperfections occur in the work because the
necessary remedy is lacking, and for this reason the labor and time em¬
ployed and all the expense are lost, so that the artificer remains discour¬
aged, worn out, and often ruined. Thus if he is not made ofmarble or is
not anotherJob on earth, he loses his patience and vents his rage by howl¬
ing and cursing at art and fortune, often blaming them instead ofhimself
for things of which they are often not guilty. Finally, having no other
recourse, and also spurred on by a certain shame that comes to the crafts¬
man when such things occur, he begins to think ofsome way to correct
the work or of starting it once again from the beginning, resolving to
protect himself from the cause ofso much loss. For, in truth, it shows a
PREFACE THE BRONZE FOUNDER 215
lack ofskill or too little diligence in the art, and I am ofthe firm opinion
that every error proceeds from these and not from fortune. It is exactly
here that the real sorrow ofthe artificer lies, for he feels it no less than the
loss. Very often when some impudent and ignorant man takes the Hberty
of mocking him and of criticizing his judgment, his violent and biting
words are no less painful to that poor worker than if they were real
wounds. Considering this (having experienced it myself) and at the same
time pitying him, I say that in this as in every other work and indeed, in
every human action, it is necessary to have good fortune in bringing a
work to the perfection of its end. But you yourself can make fortune
good. Ifyou always use the necessary care to make the means perfect the
end will never be in doubt. As many times as I have failed, or have seen
others fail, it has always seemed to me to have been a result of my own
insufficiency. Sometimes one wishes to shorten the time, sometimes to
avoid expense or labor; sometimes one does not know well how to pro¬
portion the force of powerful fires to the hardness of the materials or
weight of the metals; sometimes one fails through negligence or too
much faith in others or through not having valued what appears to be
little but has then turned out to mean very much.
[76] Thus, to conclude, whoever wishes to exercise this art well and
with certainty must do everything with exacmess. You must always
Jealously and fearfully assure yourself of this in so far as possible before
coming to the actual casting, closing every little crack with clay and
making strong and resistant with pieces ofiron the place where the force
ofthe metal presses. Keep in mind that ifyou are careful nothing will ever
happen that your judgment does not first point out to you, although a
sure result cannot be shown before the end. You should not await this but
should make certain with opportune remedies, for ifyou do otherwise (as
I told you above) the deception is always paid for. The best master is to be
considered he who guards himselfbest from such errors and, ifthey occur,
provides against them with strength ofmind.
Now to conclude: Having seen the labors, the great expense, the dan¬
gers, difficulties, and all the concomitant preparations that are necessary
for this art, one who has no need to be exalted by means of this work
should leave it to persons who are inured to labor and discomfort. This is
particularly so since I know that one must do as much as possible with his
own hands and watch everything with his own eyes so as not to be obhged
to trust the hands and eyes of his helpers, who often take but httle pains
2i6 PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI
with it because ofignorance or in order to avoid work, however it may
be. For in addition you have the natural uncertainty that one has concern¬
ing any result, and by doing the work yourself you remove these doubts
as much as possible and render your intended outcome more certain.
Therefore you must plan to spare no labor or expense and to be careful
and very patient in every detail in order to bring all the means which you
are to use to perfection. Remember that often the whole depends on
some small thing; for example, a poorly made binding or ill-fitted joint,
the leaking ofthe mould through a crack, or in a little earth or charcoal
or something else which falls in the moulds or plugs the entrance of the
gate or falls across it when it is being filled up, the snapping of a wire
ofthe binding, or in the floating up of a brick. Therefore, in conclusion,
it seems to me an art to be avoided as far as possible, since with so many
thrusts and parryings one must fence with it in order to defend one’s
profit and honor.
Nor do all the above-mentioned things suffice for one who wishes to
exercise this art, for it is very important to be a good draftsman and so far
as possible to possess the art of the sculptor. It is also necessary to know
how to work well in wood and in iron and not to be ignorant ofthe work
of the lathe. Furthermore, it is necessary to know how to use the large
mace, the chisel, the mallet, saws, gravers, files, and every tool adapted for
polishing and removing clay and all fins and roughness which the gate
makes, in order to finish the work in such a way that it is graceful and
pretty. It is also requisite to know how to lay bricks in order to make the
necessary furnaces and [761/] channels. For when others have to make them
it is not possible to explain so well.
Almost before all else, this art requires practice, with a certain discretion
in knowing how to mould properly and in understanding well the natures
and quality ofthe moulds, with adjustment ofthe things with which these
moulds have to be made. Take care to understand well which parts are to
be concave and which convex, and to make the concave parts convex [in
the mould] and vice versa as necessary. Thus you must proceed with
thought and good judgment to prepare in every detail the quality of the
materials, adjusting the forces ofthe weights to the forces ofthe moulds
and fires, and also the measurements according to the things that you wish
to make.
In short, compressing many words into few, you should know that the
achievement ofthis art lies in three principal actions. One is making and
PREFACE THE BRONZE FOUNDER 217
arranging the moulds well; the next is melting and Hquefying the materi¬
als of the metals well; and the third is making the composition of their
associations according to the results that you wish to have. In these, it is
necessary to use all possible precautions because one perfectly done if
without the others would cause all your labors to result in nothing. There¬
fore I shall describe each one separately. First I shall tell you ofthe method
ofmaking the moulds as the foundation and beginning ofthis art; and be¬
cause they are usually made ofnatural earth, since as yet nothing else has
been found that serves better than this earth, I shall begin in the first chap¬
ter to write ofit as the first thing that is used and as a very necessary and
important consideration. Therefore, take care with aU diligence to have
the best kind that you can, then also prepare it and arrange it as I shall
teach you. Then I shall speak ofthe furnaces and the methods of melting
and then ofthe metallic materials and their proportions made for desired
results, in the briefest and best way that I know.
2i8 PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI
THE FIRST CHAPTER
On the Requisite Quality ofClayfor Making Moulds
for Casting in Bronze. There are many kinds and varieties of earth* that are used for the
loam compositions for making the moulds for casting bronze,
brass, or other metals. Since this is a very necessary thing, you must
try to have the best kind and one that resists the fire well. It must be dis¬
posed to receive the metals well, must make a neat casting, and must not
shrink or break with cracks on drying or baking. Aside from actual trial, I
beheve that there is little that can help you, since the clay in itself has no
color or [77] visible sign that I know of to show how satisfactory it is.
Understand that their colors are no less varied than their natures, for, as
you see, one is white, one black, one yellow, and another red. Perhaps
none will show by its color that it is good for this work, yet it might also
happen that all colors are good. But all that I can say about it is to show
you by their effects how the good ones should be in their nature; and so by
trial you will choose among those that come into your hands.
All earths are either sandy or tufaceous, either argillaceous and lean or
pasty with unctuous viscosity. The lean ones make the loam powdery and
without toughness and hold together poorly by themselveswhen they are
dry. The unctuous and viscous pnes shrink and break. Becoming smaller
by slirinking, they often twist the forms and they stick together badly.
They swell up again in the fire and produce works that are neither exact
nor neat. Therefore, the good ones must be those that are neither unctuous
nor lean, neither wholly tender nor rough, and with a grain that is fine,
without pebbles or shells. When applied to a work they easily dry out
without fractures and, when dry, hold their own shape well. Above all
they must resist the fire well. These are usually of a yellow or red color,
but whatever their color may be, the color does not force me to say that
the yellow are really better than the black, and the red than the white or
gray. Their quality depends on what trial shows.
Thus, to summarize, whenever you have to do this work, you must try
to have the best clay that you can, because it is to be the foundation of
* terra. This word was used for earthy materials in general as well as specifically for clay
such as used in moulding. We have used either earth or clay as seemed best fitted to the
context.
CHAPTER I MOULDING CLAY 219
your work. To find it, you must go and seek in various mines or in fields
that have not been long cultivated or very well manured. You must go
also to the kilns where house tiles are made, or to the banks of rivers
where the flood waters cut in their course; here layers of earth ofvarious
natures are always exposed. In conclusion, with the exception of pure
clay (which is too viscous and tenacious), any other earth, if free from
pebbles, could easily serve you by tempering it with others, or ifit should
have pebbles, by separating them out.
When you are to begin the work, you must choose the earth which you
judge or which you have found by trial to be the best. Ifyou cannot have
it by itself, mix and compound it with another, as I have said. Ifit is too
unctuous, put in some that is lean; ifit is too lean, add some that is unctu¬
ous. Thus temper it in your own way until it becomes of a good quality.
In order to compound it, put it on a bench in a heap and make a paste
by moistening it. Then, just as potters do with theirs, proceed to beat it
well with an iron rod and also mix it with two-thirds of the whole
quantity of wool-cloth clippings. Thus, beating it again and again with
the rod untd you see that the clippings and the clay [77v] are so well com¬
pounded and united together that they appear to be one and the same
thing, and the pebbles which perchance were in it are all very well
crushed, and it has become soft and tractable, then proceed to make use of
it in making the moulds, for this is the ordinary clay which you are to use.
There are some who, because they do not have or cannot find a clay
that is as perfect as they would wish it, necessarily take that which they
can have. First they make a paste ofwhich they make cakes, and then they
dry it, crush it when dry, then sift and again moisten it, fill it with cloth
clippings, and beat it. There are some others who mix various earths with
it; others, wash ashes; and some, coarse sand. There are some who, having
a weak clay, moisten it with salt water and add rust or fmely ground iron
scale, and some add crushed brick, especially in the first clays that they
apply.
Loam is accompanied not only with wool-cloth clippings but also with
wool cardings and with those edges that fulleries take from cloth, as well
as with hairs that are taken from skins in tanneries. But in fine or close
works where the bronze must be thin these are not good because they are
too long. It is also prepared with dry dung of horse, donkey, or mule;
some with cow dung, some with chopped flax tinder, some with cane
flowers, some with finely cut straw. And to conclude, in short, there are
220 PIROTECHNIA book vi
many things that would serve as an admixture for this clay, but the best of
all that I know are the clippings ofwool cloth. But because you sometimes
find yourselfin a place where there are not any, it is necessary to do what
you can. Therefore I have noted above all the things that can be used if
there is nothing else. Sometimes the works force one not to make clays
with cloth chppings; for example, the cores of many works that need a
fragile clay so that they can be easily taken out of the inside of your
casting, which cannot be done with those made of cloth clippings.
THE SECOND CHAPTER
The General Procedure and Methodsfor
Making Mouldsfor Casting Bronze. NOW continuing with the preparation of the moulds I say that it
is necessary to give the greatest attention to the differences ofthe
clays as well as to the differences ofthose things that you wish to
mould, and to know that every concavity in the mould produces a con¬
vexity and every convexity a hollow following the shape ofthe original
pattern that you have. The pattern should be a body of a harder material
than the thing [78] you wish to mould with and of a substance that is not
swollen or disintegrated by moisture. Its archetype may be of marble,
bronze, lead, or any other metal, or also ofwood, wax, tallow, gypsum,
sulphur, or other plaster compositions—in short, of whatever you may
have or whatever succeeds best for you, depending on whether the works
are large or small and easy or difficult to mould. Ifyou wish to cast them
in bronze, you must mould them with loam, covering them with it and
then drying it. There are some things in which it is enough to form only
one part, such as half- or bas-reliefs. These are easy ifthey have no under¬
cuts. Some other patterns that are easily handled are formed in two halves,
or in three or four pieces, if they are of a hard material. There are also
moulds for large statues, which, ifone desires to make them ofbronze, are
first made of wax according to the ordinary procedure. I have in mind to
describe every one of these processes in their own place. There are like¬
wise some moulds that are difficult to make, hke scenes on a plane to
which figures in full relief are attached, or twisted ornaments or other de¬
tached things that cannot be withdrawn from the mould without break-
CHAPTER 2 221 MOULDS FOR BRONZE FOUNDING
ing either it or them. For this reason it is necessary to fill up again those
places that hold fast and to make the mould ofseveral pieces, with joints
and good mortises made in such a way that, when taken apart and marked
place for place, all may return again to their positions. Although this is a
fine and ingenious thing, I advise you to consider every other way, ifany
other way is possible even though it be longer, rather than to make the
mould in several pieces. For, even though I know you to be a careful per¬
son, I am distrustful because one never arrives where he would wish,
neither can all the pieces be so made that they can be put back together
exactly without some irregularity which is shown by variations in the
work. But they are necessary because it is oftentimes impossible to do
without them, as when one wishes to make empty spaces in order to save
bronze or other metal, or in order to spend less, or to make it lighter as
happens in large castings or in guns, bells, basins, mortars, hand bells, and
every kind of vase, large or small. Therefore, it would be necessary to
make a clay projection attached inside the mould to make the opening
that you wish in the work. This is to be arranged in such a way that it is
situated and stands fixed in the mould once it is put in, and the space be¬
tween it and the outer mould should be exactly the thickness of bronze
that you wish your work to be. This is sometimes called by skilled work¬
men the male,* sometimes the core.f Some make it one way and some
another; each proceeds as he has learned or as hisjudgment or ability dic¬
tates. Thus for the outer part one man makes his first models of wood,
another of clay, others of wax, tallow, or other fusible or combustible
materials so as to be able to empty them with heat or by burning them
inside the moulds, or even to take them out in pieces. They can also be
made of anything [78^] you wish, provided that you can take them out
perfectly so that your empty space remains neat and clean, for all ways are
good ifthey bring your work to the desired end.
There remains now only the procedure itself and the rule for applying
the loam. You will understand this better in making the moulds for guns
and bells; therefore I defer it to those places since this seems better to me in
order to avoid telling it here and then repeating it there. I shall now pro¬
ceed to tell you about the differences and sizes of guns, so that you may
know about them and I will not be obliged to proceed with too long a
discussion in their places.
* maschio.
f aniina.
222 PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI
THE THIRD CHAPTER
Concerning the Differences in Guns and Their Sizes. Before I go any farther, I wish to show you the different kinds of
guns, as I have been able to understand them from the fmished
works, for no one is found to have written or spoken of this. To
my knowledge, it is not universally known who was the inventor ofthis
horrible and fearful instrument. It is believed that it came from Germany,
discovered by chance at least three hundred years ago, according to
Comazzano,*from a crude and small beginning like the printing ofletters.
I believe, indeed it seems to me certain, that guns evolved from the effect
ofpowder, and then the forms were varied and changed according to the
desires and different abilities ofthose who made or wished to use them,f
* Antonio Cornazzano (1429-1484) was a perfect courtier and prolific poet in the
service ofthe Sforza and Este families. The quotation is probably from his Opera bellissima
de I’arte militar, Venice, 1493.
f Note on gunfounding. The oldest surviving guns are all of iron, and were apparently
made by welding rings around a series ofwrought-iron bars placed lengthways to form
the bore. This method was used for both huge bombards and small guns or mortars, but
it was supplanted during the fifteenth century by bronze casting as this was both simpler
to carry out and more reliable in its product. Gunpowder was probably born in a cast￾bronze mortar and the earliest illustration ofa gun (in a manuscript now at Oxford, dated
1327) is of a type that certainly would be made by casting. The artist has exercised his
imagination to a large degree, for a gun ofthe bulbous shape drawn would be difficult to
charge, very likely to burst, and would give but Httle impetus to the projectile. The
technique ofbell founding as described by Theophilus in the eleventh century would lend
itself to casting guns with comparatively little change. Although the skill of the bell
founder, like the product of his craft, has regularly been commandeered by warriors for
less benign service, bell founders did not usually become recognized gun founders.
There is an earlier description of casting bronze guns to be found in the manuscript by
Kritoboulos dated 1467, which gives particulars of the casting of guns for the siege of
Constantinople. An English translation from a French version of this is given by J. H.
Lefroy {ArcheologicalJournal, 1868, 25, 261). The metallurgically important part is quoted
in full by ffoulkes. The Gunfounders ofEngland (Cambridge, 1937), a book that contains
much interesting information on the technique of gun manufacturing. Kritoboulos
describes a method in which a core made of clay mixed with linen or hemp shreds was
placed in an outer reinforced mould, but no mention is made ofthe use of a clay or wax
pattern. Leonardo da Vinci in his notebooks has a number of sketches and brief notes
describing methods of making gun patterns and moulds that are much like those of
Biringuccio.
After Biringuccio and until the nineteenth century there are only three treatises on
ordnance manufacture of any particular interest from the technical standpoint, although
there are numerous books on the gunner’s art, some of which are of importance in the
CHAPTER 3 TYPES AND SIZES OF GUNS 223
Sometimes they were made as large as bombards and sometimes as small
and light as portable shotguns, and between these they made various
kinds, one long with a small ball to strike at a great distance, another short
with large balls such as mortars. Sometimes, in order to make them easy
to carry, they made them in pieces joined with screws. They have made
them large and small, combining various lengths and shapes, and have
called them by various names.
Thus it is possible to say of the guns that we call antique as well as of
those that are modern to us today that I have never found a uniform size
in any kind that is seen. Those masters who say, in order to make a repu¬
tation, that they have them depart from the truth and do not make them.
I see only that one wished to make them long with a small ball, like the
cerbottane or a little larger, like the passavolanti and basilisks, and another
wished them short, like the spingards, mortars, cortalds, cannons, bom¬
bards, and similar ones. In short, it seems to me that in every age men have
proceeded to make and still today make them as they think it will be pos¬
sible to use them best for their purposes or [79] according to the wishes of
whoever has them made or ofthe masters who make them.
It is only in the thickness ofthe bronze that I have found some rule by
measurement, and even this was not uniformly observed. I think that this
rule has been found by the masters through certain experience and is used
as a compromise instead offor making them better. For it is obvious from
reason and experience that the thicker the bronze ofa gun is the more cer¬
tain ofhis safety is the one who handles it, and ifhe wishes to shoot farther
and better he can load it with more and better powder than the ordinary
history ofmathematics. Saint Remy in 1697 gives an excellent description of gun found¬
ing by methods substantially the same as those ofBiringuccio and his work and detailed
illustrations formed the basis for the better known articles in Diderot’s Encyclopedic
(1751-1777). The celebrated and versatile geometrician Gaspard Monge in 1795 describes
the same methods and in addition gives details on the casting of guns in cheap built-up
sand moulds. His book was published in the “Year 2 ofthe Republic,’’ and, good revolu¬
tionary that he was, Monge devotes a chapter to the conversion of churches and chapels
into gun foundries for the public good. The church with its constant blessing ofmilitary
activity has always been intimately associated with ordnance. In times ofstress it has un¬
willingly yielded its bells to be melted into cannon and in victory it has received captured
cannon to cast into commemorative bells.
The difficulty ofmaking a casting that would be sound and accurately to size around a
core such as Biringuccio describes led to the casting ofsohd guns and boring. This was
apparently first tried in France in 1713 where Maritz made a boring machine ofsufficient
power and rigidity. In 1747 cored guns were forbidden by ordinance in France, and a
similar step was taken in England in 1775.
224 PIROTECHNIA book vi
one. But because every excess is useless, they are made just ofthe thickness
that suffices for the powder that is to be put in. However, it is possible
with alloys to reduce considerably the ordinary measure hitherto used and
to make guns lighter, a thing that results in easier moving ofthem and a
great saving of expense to the patron who has them made. It is also seen
from an infinite number of experiments that when a gun has a longer
barrel and is loaded with the same ball and powder as a short one, it can
shoot much farther, in spite of the opinion of those who, arming them¬
selves with lies, say that shooting far lies in the secret of measure [i.e.,
cahber].
But leaving this, I say that good men of abiUty, having seen how un¬
wieldy things hinder and what inconveniences they bring, have proceeded
to adjust guns with a certain order and sufficiency and have moderated
their length and thickness and made them variously thick and thin in the
places which seemed to need it more or less for the violence of the fire.
They have given thought to this in both the small and large ones. This is
especially apparent today in this modern usage which arranges the pieces
according to their kind; all the dimensions, however, are determined in
thickness and in length by the diameter and size of the ball that the
patron wishes them to shoot. In this, one considers and also learns from
experience how thick the bronze should be for the force of the powder.
Likewise its length should not be too long, but sufficient so that when the
fire is introduced through the hole, all the powder is well ignited before
the ball issues so that the ball may have all its forces strongly united. For if
the gun is short and the powder burns outside, the force ofthe fire is scat¬
tered when it gets in the air and it would not serve the purpose for which
you put it there.
Now setting aside this discourse, I tell you that like the bores and their
size, so the names also are found to have been given at the whim of the
captains according to their times or according to the provinces where they
were sent. Indeed they called those huge and fearful instruments which
the ancients used bombards, the lesser but much longer ones basilisks, the
others passavolanti, the smaller ones spingards and cerhottani, and the still
smaller ones arquebuses and pistols. But today the moderns proceed more
intelligently and with greater reason, because experiments have enlight¬
ened them. They have moderated the superfluous and strengthened the
weakness, and in place [79^] of the unwieldy and awkward bombards
that shot heavy balls of stone with a great quantity of powder and the
CHAPTER 3 225 TYPES AND SIZES OF GUNS
necessity ofa great expenditure ofworkmen and sappers and a great num¬
ber of animals, today they make cannons that are much easier to handle
and move because of their lightness. These shoot balls of iron that are
smaller than those of the bombards but are discharged more frequently,
and have a greater effect than those of the bombards since they are of a
harder material; they can also be fixed in place without so many supports
or other large devices in places where it is wished to make batteries for an
attack.
Three kinds of these are made, that is, double cannon,* cannon, and
demicannon. The cannon are usually five and a half to six braccia long,
which is about twenty-two times the diameter ofthe ball. The weight of
the iron ball that they discharge is from fifty to sixty pounds. The weight
of bronze is from six to seven thousand pounds, and, in those that are
more reinforced, up to eight or nine thousand pounds. Some weigh less,
depending on the wish of whoever makes them or has them made. The
demicannon discharge balls offrom twenty-five to thirty pounds, and the
double cannon, of one hundred and twenty pounds. In weight they are
proportioned to their quality. All are in one piece, and the thickness of
bronze at the place where the powder is placed is three-quarters of the
diameter of the ball, and at the mouth (omitting the projection of the
cornice) it is one-third of the diameter. A straight line is first drawn
lengthwise from one point to the other and then, as a precaution and em¬
bellishment, some put one and some two reinforcement rings at the foot,
in the place where the powder stands, up to where the trunnions are
attached on which the gun rests, and some go beyond this.
In addition to this type of cannon, others are made which are more
slender and of a greater range and with which not iron but stone balls
are discharged. These are not good for breeching walls and serve only for
shooting at infantry or cavalry and at armed ships at sea.
All the kinds of guns that have the form of cannons are usually made
with chambers. There is a great difference between one master and an¬
other in making these, for each one wishes to show that he has great
knowledge and secrets about this. For this reason there are some who
make the chambers larger than the hole ofthe tube and some make them
narrower, as I shall narrate better when teaching you how to make them
in the discussion on making gun moulds, and later in the discussion of
basilisks. In order to make them longer, these once were made oftwo or
* Often known as cannon-Royal.
226 PIROTECHNIA book vi
three pieces, one screwed into the other, as they also made the tails of
bombards and passavolanti in those times.
Today we make the culverins and demiculverins which vary Httle from
the antique ones in name but much in fact, for they are made in one piece.
They discharge at frequent intervals, are easily loaded, and are easily
moved to wherever they are needed. In place ofstone they shoot balls of
iron which usually weigh thirty pounds, and those of the demiculverins
about fifteen. They are made thicker and stronger in bronze than the
antique ones and usually the piece is made eight or nine hraccia inlength.
The thickness ofthe bronze at the foot is made the diameter ofthe ball or
more, and at the mouth, some make it a half and some [8o] a third, in
addition to the comice. This is the method observed in the measurements
of culverins as I have made them and seen them made. Nor is a chamber
made for these as for cannon. Surely it is not to be wondered at ifthis kind
of gun is highly esteemed, since it is convenient to handle and shoots a
long distance and at frequent intervals. They shoot iron and use little
In place of the spingards, cerhottane, caccia-cornacie, and similar ones,
sakers, falcons, and falconets are now made, which all shoot iron. The
saker discharges twelve pounds and is called by many a quarter-cannon;
the falcon discharges six pounds; the falconet, from three to four. In mak¬
ing them, the thickness of the bronze at the foot is made the whole di¬
ameter ofthe ball or more, and at the mouth, half; in length, whatever is
most pleasing to the master or to the patron who has them made.
There are also made merlins and muskets, instruments adapted for
shooting at frequent intervals. They use very little powder and are easily
handled by almost anyone. For this reason infantry captains like to carry
them in a campaign since they are equipment that is adapted for an offense
on the enemy and are also excellent in the defense of a place. They shoot
balls ofiron or lead with a weight offrom one to two pounds.
After these come the wall- and fork-mounted arquebuses and hand
ones. These were once commonly cast in bronze like other guns. Today,
so that they may be lighter and also safer for the one who uses them, they
are made ofiron in the forge like other iron tools. When these are made
by a good master ofwell-boiled and welded iron and are well and evenly
tempered, they are excellent and give good service in defense.
After these comes the smallest of all, the common arquebus and pistols,
which are Hke the above in that they are ofiron. Their sizes vary. Today
CHAPTER 3 TYPES AND SIZES OF GUNS 227
they do in battle what the archers used to do, both on foot and on horse.
They shoot a ball oflead weighing one ounce or less.
I have not spoken and will not speak to you ofmortars because they are
not esteemed by us moderns. With this exception, I have separately
described all the types that are used today. There remains for me only to
tell you how, in my opinion, their names are derived. Among these (as
you see) there are pieces called, respectively. Basilisk, Serpent, Griffon,
Falcon, Falconet, and Merlin—all names that are as fearful to whoever
considers them as are those ofthe basilisk or other poisonous serpents, as
well as those ofrapacious birds which always wound with their beak or
claws. The ancients also called their arms homhdirds,passavolanti, and such¬
like. For, as the wise Carafulla said, who clearly demonstrated the origin
ofevery compound word, ''homharda’ was composed from the effect and
horrible sound, for it booms, burns, and throws;* hkewise ^'passavolant,”
which means that it passes and flies. I think that similar names have been
derived by certain masters, the first makers ofthose kinds of pieces, who,
in order to give them a reputation or in order to show a certain difference
from the others, called them thus. Or it could indeed be that their princely
patrons, in order to show [Sof] a certain boasting strength and pride of
mind at having things harmful to their enemies, imposed these horrible
names on them with a certain shadow of appropriateness according to
their size and quality. It seems to me that they were lacking by far in what
was fitting, for they should be compared, not to animals, but to demons
of hell, since these man-made thunderbolts are like those that come from
the heaven ofJove.
Now leaving this discussion without comparing the Italian names to
the French, the German to the Spanish, and the ancient to the modern (for
it does not matter what their names may be except to know their sorts and
kinds), I shall now continue to tell you the processes for the practice ofthe
art of casting, beginning with how the moulds for bronze statues are
usually made.
* bomba arde & da.
228 PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI
THE FOURTH CHAPTER
Details Concerning the Processes and Methods That Are
Used in Making Mouldsfor Bronze Statues.
Anyone who wishes to make the patterns for statues in order to cast
them later in bronze, even though he himselfis the artificer who
JL ^ made them, must take many things into consideration: first,
whether they are large or small, and whether they afe wholly round or
only in part; then ofwhat material they are made, for the way that can be
followed if they are of wax cannot be used if they are of clay, wood,
marble, or even ofplaster; hkewise he must consider whether or not it has
irons inside to support it. There is also a great difference in facility if the
support is placed more in one way than in another. Great consideration
should be given to whetherit is to be made hollow or solid. Ifyou have not
been the workman yourself, you must at least have been an active helper
in this and in every other part in order to be able to observe everything
without a fault. For it they are large it is necessary to make their moulds in
pieces, with marks and measurements so that you can replace them at will
exactly in the same order and in the same places after they have been taken
out.
But if you are the artificer [as well as sculptor] the process is made
easier. Taking the ordinary way and, over an iron, make out of well￾beaten moulding clay compounded with cloth clippings a core exactly as
the statue is to be or however large you wish the hollow to be. Dry and
bake it. On top ofthis work the wax, thickening it all over as much as you
wish the bronze to be and finish it completely, remembering to arrange
that the base may come out solid with bronze so as to support the whole
work. Then take some rods of hammered bronze one dito thick and one
palmo long. Pass these through the thickness ofthe wax and fasten them in
several places in the core of clay that you made. [8i] Do it so that they
project out ofthe wax a good three or four dita. These are put in so that
when the wax is removed the core is held in the middle ofthe mould that
forms the outer part, and this outer part is held by the inner part, namely
the core, so that the mould may not move in any part from its place even
when it is handled.
This done, take some ofthat clay made with well-prepared cloth clip¬
pings as I taught you, and mix with it if you wish some wash ashes or
CHAPTER 4 MOULDING BRONZE STATUES 229
ashes ofyoung ram’s horn or iron scale, crushed finely, sifted, and moist¬
ened with water. Cover the whole statue very well with this clay, apply¬
ing it with a large brush or with the hand, not very thickly the first time.
Then dry it in the sun or let it dry gradually in the shade. When you see
that it is dry or has begun to dry, apply another layer, and likewise, when
the second is dry, apply the third, and similarly, the fourth, fifth, sixth,
and so many that you have enlarged it with either the brush or the hand so
as to make certain that it will be able to support the weight and resist the
impetus ofthe molten material and that it can be easily and safely handled.
Ifit is a large and unwieldy mould and a thing ofgreat importance, it must
also be strengthened with iron hoops and bands in addition to being en¬
circled with iron wires.
When it is thus reinforced, consider where you can best make your gate
so that the bronze may travel unimpeded throughout the entire mould
and gradually bear down onto itselfso that it may be forced into the thin
parts. For greater safety, make some runners in certain places so that they
may convey the bronze there ifit does not go by itself Likewise, two or
three vents should be made near the gate to carry offthe winds and fumes
that are generated by the heat in the mould, for the bronze could not go
into places that are closed in, and this would make a defect in the work.
Observe also that the filling hole, or the gate, should always be large
rather than too small.
After you have brought the mould to this point, by heating it with
charcoal or wood take out all the wax through the entrance and vents or
through other holes that were left in the mould for taking the wax out.
Then the mould will remain empty in those places where the bronze is to
be. In order not to lose the wax, several vessels are arranged to collect it
while it is running out. It is not possible to give a rule for this, because you
must proceed differently according to the ease ofhandling the moulds. In
many it is enough to turn the mouth upside down and put a kettle of
copper or something else buried in the ground under it. This is arranged
and covered with bricks and closed around the mould in such a way that
the fire which is above may not fall in. In order to heat it all well, ifit is a
large mould, you should put brick ends around it like a little furnace, high
enough to cover the mould and at a distance ofthree or four dita. Having
started the fire [8it'] and then filled the space with wood and charcoal or
with charcoal only, heat it gradually so that all the wax, liquefied by the
heat, may fall into the vessels that you put together to collect it. In this
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 230
way you have completed the mould for your statue. In order to cast it in
bronze there remains only to bake and prepare it as you will hear in its
place when I tell you ofthe casting itself
This is the process and ordinary method that almost everyone uses ifthe
statue [pattern] is ofwax. But in case it is ofbronze, marble, or terra cotta
it is necessary to fmd another method because these are hard materials.
With this process you must also proceed with much patience in one of
two ways. One way is to mould from it piece by piece in plaster ofParis,
ifit is small and easily handled, and then to cast a wax pattern inside this
mould. Ifit is large and unwieldy it must first be greased with good tal¬
low, pig fat, or oil, or else covered with tin foil or with beaten gold or
silver. Having moulded as much as you can ofthe part that you see pro¬
trudes and having arranged four mortises on it, then when it is dry make
four pieces around this, and in the same way, when they are dry, make
their mortises. Then make for each of these its corresponding piece, al¬
ways with its mortises, and finally mark them so that all the pieces can be
put together again. When the covering is finished and well dried, begin to
take away the last part that you put there and then proceed to replace
every piece carefully in its place according to its marks, closing aU the
junctions inside and outside with soft clay, and strengthening it with rein¬
forcements ofiron and bindings oftow, hemp, and clay. Continue until
you observe that it is in two parts that can be fitted together. Certain
bronze nails one dito thick are put in various places in the parts thus con¬
structed so that they extend a good four dita into the inside ofthe mould.
Then take pure wax or a composition ofwax and tallow or ofsome other
thing that becomes liquid with heat and apply it all over [the inside] to the
thickness in bronze that you wish the statue to be. Finally, when it has
been brought to this point, clay is apphed all over and made into a mould
ofsuch a shape that it fits exactly when joined with its other half. These
are fitted together tightly, and the junction is closed with soft clay. Then,
in the way described above, the wax is taken out with fire and the mould
remains empty. When its openings and vents have been made where you
wish, bake it and you will be able to cast it in bronze.
There are some others who, because they wish to make the bronze
statues hollow and equally thin all over (wherein hes the whole difficulty),
make a core ofmoulding clay finished exactly as they wish their statue to
be, and bake it. When it is baked, they cut away a layer of the thickness
that they wish the bronze to have and replace this in wax. To do it better.
CHAPTER 4 MOULDING BRONZE STATUES 231
they cut it away part by part and replace with wax the amount of clay
taken off, thus returning their figure in wax to its previous shape in clay.
When it is thus finished, they apply loam [82] and make the mould and do
everything in the way taught above.
There are also others who make their statues of tow and paste, on an
iron, and if the statue is to be clothed, they dress it with a thick or thin
canvas covered with glue as painters do with their models to be drawn.
Then they even it up with wax and tallow mixed with turpentine and
finish it exactly. Then the mould is made over this and it is made in two,
three, or four pieces. Then they heat the mould in the way described
above so that the composition of tow and wax is all burned up. Finally,
when it is thus empty and in pieces, in order to make the casting come out
hollow and thin, a layer ofwax is made and the bronze supports placed in
the wax between the two clay parts. Then they follow the method taught
you above ofmoulding in pieces over a core. This is done with a certain
discretion and skill so that it becomes a single body when the parts are
reunited and the mortises and marks fitted together. Then when they are
bound and covered with clay and prepared hke the others, the wax is taken
out with fire.
There are still others who, since they cannot or do not wish to mould in
plaster ofParis, mould it in potter’s clay ifit is not a large statue. This clay
is well beaten so that it is hard enough to stand by itself, and it can stand in
two, three, four, or six pieces as needed. Then they pour melted wax into
the empty space. Ifthey wish the statues solid, they fill them up with wax,
and if they wish to make them hollow, they put in enough so that by
turning it about and then upside down they prevail upon it not only to
spread all over but to make the thickness which they wish the statue to be
in bronze, taking out the superfluous wax by decantation. When it is cold
the wax is taken out ofthe moulds and the fins made by the junctions are
carefully taken off. It is exactly cleaned and finished just as it is to be.
Then its hollow is fiUed with hquid clay composed of cloth chppings,
horse dung, a half of young ram’s-horn ashes, and a little fresh plaster of
Paris. When this clay is well dried the outer mould is put on the statue
little by little until it has been brought to a sufficient thickness. Four or six
bronze or iron supports are passed through it as far as the clay core to hold
it all in place. When this has been well bound and finished, the wax is
taken out with fire in the same way as the others. Thus they have the
mould of the statue that they wish to make in bronze. They make this
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 232
hollow, thin, and exactly even, just as the wax was. This is surely a fine
and very easy method, but one for making heads or small statues rather
than large ones.
I also told you that the position and arrangement ofthe statues is a thing
for consideration. Thus I repeat that there is much greater difficulty in
making the moulds for those figures that stand upright than for those that
are seated, and more for those that gesticulate than for those in repose.
What I have told you is all that I can say about full statues, whether
they be large or small; I tell it to you however, not as an exact rule from
which it is impossible to deviate (for the parts of one method must be
combined with those of another according to the work), but in order to
awaken your wit so that you may be able to do it well every time.
[82v] I shall now continue by telling you ofhalfreliefs and bas-reliefs ot
figures, leaves, ornaments, or scenes. There is the ordinary way ofmaking
their moulds, when they are of wax, with clay spread over it. The
mould remains complete when the wax is taken out by fire. If they are
things of bronze, marble, or wood, the mould is made by filHng in the
undercuts, drying them, then greasing the whole thing well, and applying
the clay. The pattern is taken out and the fillers returned to their places
and fastened in with nails or attached with soft thin clay.
Ifthey are important things well made in wax or soft clay and are less
than a halfrehef they can be moulded in plaster ofParis in such a way as
not to lose the first pattern. The wax can be poured in the plaster ofParis
to make an exact likeness and the mould made on this. But ifthey surpass
the halfrehefand you do not have fillers for making the undercuts because
they are difficult, or ifyou cannot make them because the pattern is ofsoft
clay, do without them. For this reason there are some who usually make a
paste ofhide shreds or parchment scrapings as strong and resistant as pos¬
sible, made into a well-mixed and clean glue. First, having greased the
scene well with oil or pig fat and made a retainer around it of wood or
slightly warm clay, they apply this glue and let it set. When it has set they
turn it upside down on a board, together with the scene, and take offthe
scene by pulling. The impression remains very well formed in this glue,
even though it has many undercuts. Now, having greased this well with a
small brush, you can cast the plaster ofParis on it. Anyone with discretion
would cast it in wax as well, but certainly in plaster ofParis, because it is a
better, safer, and harder thing. Following this the plaster mould could also
be cleaned well, ifyou wish, and remoulded in clay, and in this impression
CHAPTER 4 MOULDING BRONZE STATUES 233
you would surely cast in wax and thus have a pattern from which the
mould for casting in bronze can be made without spoiling the first one.
But in order to avoid making so many moulds on moulds, some ofthe
same or a stronger glue, ifyou can have any, is taken and put in with some
fme burned painter’s plaster ofParis; this is mixed, cast into that impres¬
sion in the first glue, and allowed to set. Then by turning it upside down
the impression of the first mould is taken off and the positive remains;
this is covered all over with a brush with liquid clay made of cloth clip¬
pings, and the mould is gradually made of the desired thickness inside.
Finally, if it does not come out on being turned upside down, it is taken
out with a little heat from a fire. Thus, by means ofthis reliefmade with
glue and plaster ofParis, you have a way ofmaking a mould for casting in
bronze, but it is a long and tiresome way. IfI should have to make such a
work and should wish to use this method, because the separating surfaces
between the moulds seem to me dangerous and weak on account of the
heat and moisture ofone glue against another, and ofthe clay against the
glue, I would make them all oftin foil, silver, or base gold. For, even ifit
were more expensive, it would seem to me a better and safer way.
There are also some who do not take so many pains with these things,
[83] especially ifthey are not statues or works ofgreat importance. When
they wish to make the moulds for casting in bronze they make them [the
patterns] of potter’s clay. When these are freshly made, they grease them
well with a brush with pig fat or make a surface oftallow, or, ifthey wish,
they could cover them with tin foil. Then they apply over this a liquid
clay made with cloth clippings and make it as thick as they wish with a
brush or with the hand. This is then bound with wire or plates ofiron to
strengthen it, and finally heated, if desired, so that the heat may penetrate
the fat and make a separation ofone clay from the other. Then all the clay
is gradually scraped away with an iron tool shaped like a cliisel or with a
hooked scraper, beginning on the side that shows itself most exposed.
Thus there is the desired impression ofthe thing.
In a similar way, when I was in the service ofthe Republic at the time
of the siege, * I made in Florence the breech of a double culverin in which
there was a large head of an elephant, of a size proportioned to the size of
the piece, which was eleven and a half hraccia long. This was a single cast-
* Florence was besieged from October, 1529, to August, 1530, by an Imperial army
under the Pope’s direction. The capitulation of the Republic resulted in the reestablish¬
ment ofMedici rule.
234 PIROTECHNIA book vi
ing whose weight when finished was eighteen thousand [pounds]. Later, I
succeeded in many other works in using a similar method since it is a way
that is easy, quick, and almost without expense. But it is true that in small
works it is a little tiresome, although it is possible to make certain difficult
parts ofwax or tallow. Certainly, iflarge figures have to be made, espe¬
cially in half relief, I believe that this method would serve very well for
the procedure which I used.
To conclude: There are many methods, depending on the works, and
on the skill, experience, or opinion ofthe masters, for one prefers one road
and another, another.
THE FIFTH CHAPTER
Details Concerning the Methods ofMaking
Mouldsfor Guns. IN order to make his work easier, every master of any art whatever
keeps always to the road that he has learned or that his skill or good
judgment has shown him to be the best. Although there are various
methods used in making moulds for guns, depending on whether they are
large or small, nevertheless almost the same road is traveled in all.
You must first know that it is necessary to make a pattern of wood or
clay exactly as the gun is to be, with those ornaments ofcornices and rings
that you wish to be in the bronze. Let us suppose that you wish this pat¬
tern to be ofwood. You must try to have for this a piece offir as long and
thick as you wish, dry, solid, and well seasoned, with few or no knots if
possible. This should be longer than the gun by the length ofthe head and
foot rests where it is pivoted [831^] so that it can be turned as on a lathe. On
the end where the mouth is to be it should project out enough so that you
can attach a feeding head at the top ofthe casting. You can make or have
this pattern made round, fluted, spiral, or half fluted, as you like best,
making the measurements exactly correct with all care and attention.
Then two bearing trestles must be fixed firmly in the ground, one at the
head and one at the foot, as is usually done with roasting spits and as you
see drawn here.
This done, ifit is fluted, put the comice pieces at the place where you
wish the mouth to be and at the foot where the fire is applied. These are
CHAPTER 5 GUN MOULDS 235
detached when you draw the spindle out ofthe mould and are left behind,
remaining embedded in the clay mould. The same happens with the
handles, carving, and other ornaments that you have put on the pattern.
But first, in order that the junction with the breech may be made at the
foot, make either of clay or wood, well leveled with tallow or wax, a
somewhat tapered wheel, three dita thick and one or more dita larger than
the diameter or circumference of the cornice that is at the foot on the
Figure 29. The pattern from which gun moulds are made.
thickest end of the gun.* Then immediately above the cut end of the
cornice at the mouth likewise make a large ball, or feeding head as it is
called, so that later the gun may be laden with bronze at the mouth by
this quantity of metal in order that it may be given the unctuousness of
raw tin and caused to become more fixed and solid. Exactly above this
point make another wheel, also tapered, but in the opposite direction and
smaller than the one which you made at the foot. This is to be the socket
and guide for the corejust as the other is for the breech. But both these, as
well as the cornices at the mouth, should be apphed with ashes or tallow
underneath so that they may stay behind when the spindle is drawn out.
Also make two small round and long trunnions hke rollers which are
somewhat tapered toward the gun. Their size in thickness and length is
the diameter ofthe ball ofthe gun or otherwise at your discretion. These
* Figure VI in the Appendix will aid in the understanding of this passage. The “wheel”
merely provides an enlargement into which a projection from the breech fits. The various
cornice rings, trunnions, and ornaments were made movable so as to allow the main pat¬
tern to be slid longitudinally out ofthe mould.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 236
are fastened with two long nails so that they can easily be taken out as you
wish when the clay mould has been made. They are placed at a point two￾fifths [84] ofthe length which the gun is to be, beginning to measure from
the foot and continuing up to the place where the reinforcements, or rings
as they are called, come.
Then this pattern is well covered with fine wash ashes or with tallow or
some other fat, after it has first been well smoothed from head to foot and
the wheels made true with tallow or clay. Apply the first coat offine loam
with a brush, and if there is no tallow or wax underneath which will
hquefy and spoil with heat, you can immediately apply the heat offire so
that it may dry and be finished much sooner. Otherwise leave it to dry by
itselfin the sun, wind, or air with time, at least up to the second or third
coat ofclay. When it is dry enlarge it as much as you wish. When you are
at the penultimate coat, cover it over with a layer ofiron wires spaced two
dita apart. This done, apply another coat of clay so that it may hold the
wire fast. When you have dried it reinforce the whole mould and make it
strong with eight or at least six iron rods as long as the whole mould and
with several iron bands spaced a third or at most a half hraccio apart, bind¬
ing and drawing it tight with these or with iron wire. Also apply another
coat of clay over this so that it may hold it more secure in all its parts. I
advise you to use all your diligence in this operation because it is very im¬
portant to have a strong armature for the safety ofyour work.
This done, dry it well and then apply to the whole a good heat from
charcoal or wood fires until you think that it has penetrated within to the
pattern and completely loosened the wax or tallow. Then hft it by its
journals with pulley blocks or the strength ofmen and, like the beam of a
battering-ram, strike the end ofthe spindle that served as a support. This
is done after you have first taken offthe superfluous clay and taken out the
nails or other irons which held some part, such as the trunnions or cor¬
nices. Putting the whole mould in motion, strike the protruding front
part against a wall, and thus the spindle which is inside will come out.
Then you will have your mould empty and clean according to your care¬
fulness. If necessary, close up with fine, soft clay any small breaks that
may appear on the inside or outside. Thus you will have the jacket or
principal mould which makes the outside ofthe finished gun. It is not per¬
fect in every part, however, because for completion it lacks the collar
that holds the core in the middle, as well as other parts, and it must be
baked and covered with ashes as you will hear in the proper place.
CHAPTER 5 GUN MOULDS 237
But I do not wish to omit advising you about all the kinds of patterns
that you might wish to make, like those that are not all wood in case you
do not have firs as thick or long as would be necessary, or ifyou wish to
make them round and should wish to make them ofclay in order to spend
less or for greater artistry.
First, if you should not have fir wood of the necessary thickness or
length, you must graft together several pieces by means of [84^] fasten¬
ings with bolts, glue, and iron bands, so that it may be as strong in every
part as ifit were one piece. But for greater ease in case you have wood of
the proper length only, as thick a spindle as possible is roughly cut in the
shape of a shaft and pivoted on two trestles as you did with the others.
This is then wrapped and covered all over up to the top with rope so that
one turn closely touches the next. Then a coat of clay is applied, followed
by two or three or enough to reach to the exact point of thickness that
you wish. Having smoothed it with a cutter made of an exactly planed
piece ofboard and having made its rings where necessary, and now wish¬
ing to work it into flutings or in spiral grooves, you can easily do so by
dividing the spaces with compasses and taking away the clay from the
roundness where necessary. It will turn outjust as ifyou had worked it in
wood. But because the mould made like a screw [i.e., with spiral fluting]
is one from which the spindle will not issue when struck, smooth and
clean it with the aforesaid board at a thickness of one good dito before
you come to the final outside coating. Then apply a coat of ashes and put
on top of this enough clay in one or two coats to bring it to your size.
Then cut into the same board with which you have smoothed the pattern
by turning it, or in another board, an indentation on the front side at the
head so that it forms the large ball above the cornices and the disc for
guiding the core. In the same way make another disc underneath at the
foot as a socket for the breech mould.
Ifyou wish to make your gun round, also cut in the board the cornices
both at the top for the mouth and at the foot for the place where the fire
is or at the ends of the reinforcements, and then, bringing it near to the
pattern that you made ofclay in such a way that it touches it everywhere,
make the large ball ofclay and the cornices in their places either oftallow
or clay by rotating the pivoted pattern, and make it exactly as you wish
the gun to be. Then grease it all over with tallow or lard or whatever you
wish, and finish it as you continually rotate it on the board. This done, if
you wish to adorn it with leafwork, coats of arms, or ornaments, you can
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 238
do so. Then cover it with clay in the manner taught you above and like¬
wise take out the spindle by striking it. But because the fire, in drying the
clay, always pushes the moisture inward and thus causes the clay and
ashes to swell so that it is often difficult to take the pattern out of the
mould, do not be concerned about this but strike with force. Ifit does not
do so elsewhere, it will separate itself from those ashes that you apphed
when you were a dito distant from the end, and all the clay that you
applied in order to even it will remain on the inner part of the mould.
When you have cut this on one side and taken away the support of the
circle it will all collapse down unless there are undercuts in the places that
you made screw-shaped or in the cornices. In this case it would be neces¬
sary to work it out with a long sharp iron tool little by httle so as not to
injure the mould.
In order that [85] you may better understand the practice of making
moulds, you should know that every gun mould needs three pieces, some
four, and some others, six. One of the three principal parts is the first
mould, already described to you, which makes the outside. The second is
the core, which makes the empty hole in the middle ofthe gun where the
powder is found and through which the ball is shot. The other is the
breech which closes the mould underneath and supports the whole burden
of the metal. The fourth may be that part put on top as a guide for one
who does not usually Join it with the core, as I shall show you in its place.
And the two parts which make six, ifthis is the fourth, are the seals for the
trunnion moulds.
Now leaving what has been said about bringing the outside jacket to
perfection (for this can be said to be finished), I told you that it lacked the
placing at the foot of the iron which holds the core in the middle. Al¬
though it should be the last part that I tell you of, it does not matter where
I speak ofit, for it is as valuable in one place as in another as long as you
make use ofit when you need it. It is a very necessary thing to know, and,
as far as I know, no better ways for placing it have yet been found than
those that I shall narrate now.
The first, and the one that seems the best to me, is the collar. This is an
iron ring of a diameter exactly the thickness ofthe core. It has four legs in
a cross; some weld these and some pierce the thickness ofthe iron and pass
the legs through those holes. Each one ofthese legs enters the outer mould
and passes through it. Exactly enough is cut away from the mould to be
sufficient for fastening each ofthese iron pieces. Choose a place for them
CHAPTER 5 GUN MOULDS 239
one palmo below the foot comice and fix them in firmly with clay, iron
wedges, or chips ofstone.
In order to make the ring that is to hold the core in place exactly in the
middle, some men customarily make four iron pieces which have a
somewhat forklike shape at the head in the form of a circular segment.
These pass into the mould also through four holes opposite each other and
are fastened in the same place in the mould as the aforesaid ones. Each one
ofthese, pushing out from its place, supports the core and holds it in the
middle.
There are others who use not this method but another. In place of
these irons they make another which they put in the breech and which
they call the “castle.” Its shape is that oftwo irons like a cross, bent in the
middle so that they make a raised part and each one of the other parts
forms a foot so that it stands like a tripod. Above the raised part there are
four irons that have a strong foot that is riveted to that raised part. These
are castellated, indeed are like a little candelabra. Now this iron is put in
the breech. With the raised part and the castle it has a height that exactly
reaches with its point to where the core is to end. Its opening is wide
enough exactly to embrace the point ofthe core.
These are all the arrangements ofthe irons that I have ever seen for serv¬
ing the purpose of holding the core in the center. I think that I shall tell
you ofthem again and describe them to you as well as I can in drawings in
another place.*
[851^] Now when you have decided which of the said irons to use and
have put it in the mould, plaster it well all over. Then smear the whole
inside with a sponge tied to a pole or to the end of a tube. This is mois¬
tened with water or egg white and young ram’s-horn ashes finely
ground on the porphyry f or with water in the potter’s mill, covering
with this certain little pores formed by the cloth clippings and sometimes
by the burning of the wax and tallow. Leave the mould to dry in an
upright position or lying down, very well supported.
* Pages 246 to 248.
f A porphyry slab, used for fine grinding, particularly ofpainters’ colors, etc.
240 PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI
THE SIXTH CHAPTER
How the Cores in Gun Moulds Are to Be Made. The second part ofthe mould for making guns is the core. Without
this the space could not be made where the powder is to be and
through which the ball, impelled by the fire, can pass and take
flight. To make this it is necessary to take two things into consideration,
because they are very important. One is what you are to make it on so
that it may be supported and kept true. The other is what composition of
clay will stand up during casting and yet not be very difficult to extract
from the body of the finished gun.
For the first, it is found that only an iron spindle of a suitable thickness
is able to support the weight ofthe clay without bending under the heat of
the fire or wobbling as it is turned on itsjournals or when handled. This
should be a braccio or more longer than the mould ofthe gun and worked
exactly round, straight, and well tapered like a spindle; above aU every
one ofitsjoints should be well secured and solid. At the upper end a per¬
forated heel should be made, and lower down, exactly at the point cor¬
responding to the length of the mould, are one or two other holes
through which the little crossbars can be passed that fasten the core to the
outer mould and also serve for constructing the disc. Now this iron is to
be arranged on two trestles, pivoted so that it may turn truly when ro¬
tated. In order that it may not run up and down, make a little iron fork
which engages a notch made with a file at the foot, and another at the head.
After this, you must prepare clay for the core which is well made and
tenacious enough not to crack. First take care that there are no pebbles in
it and that it is composed of a small amount of cloth clippings and much
sifted horse dung and some washed and clean wash ashes so that it may be
of a tender and crumbly consistency in order that it may later be more
easily extracted from the space inside the gun. In the same way, in order
that you may be able to take out the iron piece at the same time, first
cover it with ashes, and then wrap it aU over with a rope of ordinary
thickness, leaving a dito ofthe iron uncovered in every palmo length. [86]
Alternatively, you may cover it all very tightly with hemp tow in the
same way after it has been covered with ashes. Or heat your iron con¬
siderably and then cover it all to the thickness of a good cord with wash
ashes or powdered charcoal that has been made into a paste with a little
CHAPTER 6 CORES FOR GUN MOULDS 241
clay water or egg white. After it has dried, take some of your prepared
clay, apply a coat of it all over, and bind it with a Httle hemp tow. Then
let this first clay dry very well. Gradually proceed to enlarge it until you
are near the thickness that the diameter ofthe ball is to be, always allowing
each coat to dry very well. Then take a board of walnut or some other
wood that is as long as the core and as much longer as is necessary to reach
over its supports, for you are to form it on these. Its thickness is to be such
that it holds firm when the clay is put on or such that it will not shake or
bend when the core is turned. On one ofits sides this is to have a blunt¬
angled cut underneath, and it is to be made as straight as possible with a
large plane. As I told you above, this is to be fixed firmly with two nails at
the points on the trestles where the projecting journals are, but separated
from the core by as much as you wish the thickness of the clay to be.
Turning the iron spindle, apply more clay on that already put there, and
continue to do this evenly until you reach the cutting edge on the board.
Then finish it, making it smooth with some soft clay passed through a
sieve. Having finished and dried it, take it from the trestles and gradually
complete with good clay the part lacking at the point and at the foot.
Thus when you have completely finished and dried it, cover it all with
damp wash ashes. Then, when you wish to cast, bake it again in the way
that I shall show you in its place.
There are some masters who reinforce their cores by wrapping them
with an iron wire with a spacing oftwo dita between the wires. Some put
it on when it is half a dito from the correct size ofthe core. Others do not
bother about this reinforcement, saying that the wire causes great annoy¬
ance in extracting the core. Without heeding this, I have used either way
as I thought best in regard to the quality ofthe guns.
There is also among the masters ofthis art a certain difference of opin¬
ion, not yet resolved, in regard to making a part at the foot ofthe cannon
cores which makes a certain difference in the tube, which they call the
chamber. Some like it and some do not, and some wish to make it in one
way and some in another. Under this veil these men pretend to have a
great secret and puff up their reputations by telling lies which deer could
not leap over, promising that from their guns not only balls but lightning
flashes will issue. But in the end they make only what others have made,
and if you ask them what theory moves them, they make only a surly
answer. Worst of all are those chambers in which the hollow ofthe tube
narrows down. If they wish to put in enough powder, they decrease the
242 PIROTECHNIA book vi
length of the course of the ball, which is one of the [86f] causes of its
impetus, for it is obvious that the longer the tube of the gun, the more
vigorously and the farther the same fire sends the ball. Therefore those
men err who narrow it at the foot, because, as I have told you, they
shorten the piece. They also err because they are obhged to put in a
certain definite quantity of powder, since, if later they should not put
it in, the ball cannot pass the point that they have made narrower, and
Figure 30. The iron core bar and finished cores for gun
chambers of various shapes.
there remains between it and the powder a certain empty space which
could easily cause great damage to the gun. But it is certain, since experi¬
ence teaches it, that the more powder there is closed up in that place, the
greater force it has for shooting because of the multiphcation ofthe fire.
Likewise the more it is given the possibility ofigniting in an instant, the
more united is its violence, and the quicker it drives out the ball as it
moves forward. This means that the quicker it escapes from torment the
more safety there is in the use of guns.
However, ifyou still wish to make a chamber, it seems to me that you
should make those that increase the fire and the tube. These are the ones
that, following a definite measure, are enlarged particularly in the middle
more than at the end, hke a grain of barley, or those that at the foot are
like the flaring mouth of a trumpet or the head of a battering-ram. How¬
ever, many say that in the mould that is narrow at the outside, the more
the powder space is enlarged, the more the strength of the bronze is
CHAPTER 7 THE MOULD FOR THE BREECH 243
diminished, just as ifthe power ofrestoring it and making the gun thicker
were denied them! There are others who say that by deviating from the
exact hmits required by the dimensions of a gun its beauty is lessened. In
this they are mistaken for he is ignorant who does not cover with rein¬
forcements and ornamental cornices whatever he fears may be displeasing
to the sight. One thing I know, however, is that every one ofthese cham¬
bers that you make gives rise to the inconvenience that in loading them
the gunners cannot pack the powder in well and press the ball against it as
in a uniform equal tube. Now, to you goes the choice as to which pleases
you most ofthese kinds ofwhich I have told you and which you will also
see drawn here.
[87] THE SEVENTH CHAPTER
Methodsfor Making the Third Part ofGun
Moulds, Called the Breech. I HAVE told you of two parts of the mould for guns. You lack the
third, which is the one for making the breech. This, in addition to
being a part that is always ornamented with some piece ofsculpture
to make the gun beautiful, is that part which forms the bottom and closes
the whole mould. It is also the one that sustains the entire burden of the
bronze, and it must therefore be made with great consideration and dili¬
gence, taking care to make it strong with clay and with iron bands. Vari¬
ous methods are used in making this. Every master does as he knows how,
either preferring to do it quickly or delighting to make his work ornate
and beautiful. His choice also depends on whether they are to be just
artillery or occasions for artistry.
There are some who, ifthe guns are of a round form, make the pattern
for the breech on a lathe, either ofwood or ofclay. If they are fluted, they
make the flutes by hand in wood or clay, following the pattern of the
board. In a part that perchance might not come out of the mould, they
put some tallow underneath or make it entirely oftallow or wax so that it
will come out. Likewise, if they wish to make cornices or other projec¬
tions these can be put on either in wood or in clay. In the same way they
also apply leafwork of clay or wax so that it can be taken out by hand or
with the fire.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 244
After you have made this pattern as you wish it, apply over it a clay
made with good cloth clippings. Carefully and gradually enlarge the
mould and make it level underneath like a base. On this construct the
male part ofthejoint which fits exactly into the foot ofthe large mould as
does a box into its cover, turning it with an iron tool when it is dry, or,
when it is moist, working it with a small strickle or with compasses ro¬
tating from a point in the middle ofthe flat part ofthe mould, removing
the superfluous part with a chisel or adding some clay where this is lacking
until it enters exactly into its place in theJoint.
Having done this, bind the mould well with iron wire and reinforce it
strongly with a cage ofiron rings and plates. Fill all the empty spaces with
clay or with pieces ofbrick and clay if you wish, and tighten its armature
well. Then take out your pattern with fire or some other means and you
will have the cavity. Repair this again with soft clay wherever needed.
When this is finished it constitutes the other part of the mould that was
I told you above that there are as many ways ofmaking this mould as
there are wits or opinions of masters. I have not only used all those de¬
scribed here, but, because ornate things always delighted me, I have also al¬
ways attached at the foot ofthe guns that I have made, in addition to the
cornices which seemed to me necessary, full-relieffigures and heads [Sjv]
of both men and animals as well as urns or similar things. I have always
made these entirely of wax or of potter’s clay. They were shaped almost
exactly as I wished them to turn out, and over them I made the mould in
one ofthe two ways. In order to make the Joint exactly match the cavity
at the foot ofthe first mould, I made a hollow wooden model on a board
with the exact height ofthe disc that makes the hollow at the foot, and I put
the pattern for the breech in the middle ofthis round place which is wider
at the top than at the foot. Then I covered the mould with clay and con¬
tinued to a size corresponding to the whole diameter ofthe large mould.
Then I bound it up very well with wire and iron cage bars and when it
was finished and well dried I extracted the pattern with fire or with hooks
or other iron tools. At one and the same time I found the Joint’s cavity
closed with the male part ofthe breech. After this was fitted in, I repaired
any part that needed it. In this way I made the breech ofthe “Elephant” in
Florence; for, since it was an unwieldy thing that had a vessel of more
than a hraccio, I would [otherwise] have had great difficulty in bringing it
to an exact result.
CHAPTER 8 CORE SUPPORTS 245
In order to avoid annoyance and expenditure ofwood, I have also often
made them without this pattern. Having made the breeches of clay, as I
have told you, and greased them with fat or tallow, and apphed the lute
above this, I have made the joint by means of measurements and the
chisel.
Now, however you may make the moulds for the breech, do it so that
they fit well, are dry, and are ofproperly mixed clay. They are to be well
reinforced with iron bands formed hke a star and bent back like a cage. A
hook is turned downwards at the top end of each piece of iron, and a
strong hoop placed around them like a basket. Be sure to spare neither
pains nor expense in doing this well, because they often break open inside
like a pomegranate because ofthe pressure or heat, and even though the
bronze does not leak through these cracks, your work is spoiled and ill
formed, and you must finally cut it down laboriously with cutting tools
and chisels.
To conclude; You fmally cover it with ashes and bake it when you wish
to cast it, as I shall teach you in its place and as is usually done.
THE EIGHTH CHAPTER
The Method ofMaking the Disc or Platefor Holding
Cores Centrally in Gun Moulds at the Top. IF you do not make the disc at the same time as the core and as part of
it, it is necessary to make it by itself This is done by spreading on a
board or other flat surface a layer of clay as thick and wide as [88] the
disc that you made at the feeding head of the first pattern of the gun.
When it is dry, mark it exactly with compasses and then, cutting with a
chisel or rasp, make it fit exactly into the empty space at the head. Like¬
wise, make a hole just as wide as the thickness of the core exactly in the
middle of this clay disc. When you have put the disc in its place in the
mould and then pass the core through this hole, it passes exactly through
the center ofthe mould in such a way that it meets the iron ring that you
put at the foot ofthe mould for this purpose.
As I said above, ifyou do not make it as part ofthe core, it is necessary
to proceed in the aforesaid way. But ifyou wish to make it attached to the
core (which I like better because it can be done more accurately) make a
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 246
notch at the top of the cutting edge of the board that smooths the core.
When filled with clay, this notch makes just the elevation that fills the
hollow above the feeding head.
There are some others who build a hub of clay on a round piece of
wood the exact thickness ofthe core, and saw it up when it is dry or turn
it with an iron tool. Thus they obtain one, two, three, or four, or as many
as they need ofthese discs which exactly fit in the place because they have
been so made. You can also make this disc exactly with moistened clay in
a circular groove cut into a board. You could also make them by mould¬
ing in a round mould of the exact size with a round elevation in the
middle which makes the hole for the entrance ofthe core. Some others, in
order to put this core into the mould accurately, do not use a disc or any
iron piece, but make a bearing sleeve* the exact size that the core is to be.
But these men have difficulty in making the feeding head, and it is also
necessary that they make the gates and vents low and at the side of the
piece, which, in my opinion, is neither as good nor as safe.
THE EIGHTH CHAPTERf
Methods ofHolding Cores at the Foot ofGun Moulds.
A LTHOUGH I have told you before (in the chapter on making the
main mould for guns) how to support the core, I wish to repeat
.A Ji. it here briefly and in a more orderly fashion, so that you may
understand it better. For it is a thing of great importance to the profit of
the owner as well as to the honor of the master, because he who does not
locate the core in the middle makes the gun weak and incapable ofshoot¬
ing straight, and shows great lack ofskill as a master. In short, it is very
necessary to do this well.
The first of these methods that I described to you is an iron, one dito
wide, made into a ring which has four arms in a cross, or sometimes three.
This is put in the mould where [881^] the last cornice begins, one palmo or
half a hraccio from the foot. Secure it in the middle of the diameter,
* This is supposedly a long sleeve like a bearing liner that fits the core inside and the gun
mould outside. The word biligo, translated here as bearing sleeve, seems to mean almost
anything to do with a journal, pivot, or bearing,
f There are two chapters numbered 8.
CHAPTER 8-A CORE SUPPORTS 247
measuring this exactly, with the arms fixed in the clay and made firm
with iron wedges or brick chips so that they cannot move.
The other method consists offour irons, each ofwhich has a httle fork
at the top, opened in such a way that each makes a part ofthe ring. These
four pieces also make a circle, though not a continuous one, ofsize equal
to the thickness of the core. The legs, fixed in the clay, are made secure
like the others.
lERRTIAITJlAJROCCHA.
Figure 31. Various kinds ofsupports for the cores in gun moulds.
The other iron, also a support for the core and which many usually
make, consists oftwo iron pieces bent in the form ofhalf an arch. Where
these ride on each other a castle offour irons is fixed, which has an open¬
ing the size ofthe diameter ofthe thickness ofthe core. This is put in the
breech.
In my opinion the best way of all is to make a ring with four iron pins
which pass through four holes in it and are put into the mould. The pins
are perforated outside, and by means ofthese holes the ring can be drawn
into the exact middle. Whichever one ofthese succeeds best for you is to
be used.
As the corresponding part at the top, the aforesaid perforated disc of
clay is put. In place ofthis, another similar iron collar could also be fitted
as you did at the foot, exactly into the empty space ofthe feeding head, or
higher up, wherever you wish. However, in consideration ofthe handling
of clays, coals, and powdery stuff that must be done, I like to have the
mould covered by the disc rather than open, as it would be with the said
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 248
iron piece—for although I also like ample entrances, they seem to me
dangerous because of various inconveniences and this one would seem
particularly so, wherefore I praise the disc, either made by itself or at¬
tached to the core.
Ofthe irons at the foot mentioned to you, all please me more than that
which is set in the breech, because two difficulties become apparent. One
is that you must put the breech in the mould and bind it there before you
put the core in place. Then, when putting in the core, it is necessary to
leave the gate open, and it is easily possible that some clay, charcoal, or
something else may fall in, and when it falls in, even ifyou should see it, it
would have to stay there or else the work would have to be redone: this
cannot happen in any ofthe other methods—indeed, it has always pleased
me, before putting the breech in place, not only to close up all the gates
and vents with tow but also to have them covered and bound with a
cloth. The other disadvantage is that on being pressed down upon, one
side ofthe base ofthe tripod might lift up more than it should, although
as an assurance against this the claws ofthe distaff are made long and the
core is made exactly the length ofthe distance from the disc to the point
in the gun where the touchhole is to be.
Now, as you can understand, when the core is to be put into it, the
mould lies in a pit as deep as itselfin front ofthe furnace, and the core is
put in from above with a little pulley block, as you will hear in its place
when [89] it is time for the casting.
Here I have made a drawing [Fig. 31], so that if I have not described it
well you may know what the disc looks like and what the iron collars are,
or those made like a castle.
THE NINTH CHAPTER
Concerning Gates and Vents in General Every mould, of whatever kind it may be, must have an entrance
appropriate to the material ifit is wished to fill its inner space with
bronze or other metal. It is likewise necessary that it have vents,
that is, air holes, for there is nothing that is not full ofair even though it be
called empty. Now, molten bronze is a material that has an immediate
effect because ofits heaviness, and because it is as hot as fire or even hotter.
CHAPTER 10 BAKING MOULDS 249
and at the same time thick. When it is to enter the mould cavity, it en¬
counters the air therein which would necessarily find itself entrapped and
would either refuse entrance to the bronze or break the mould in order to
escape. Thus your casting would turn out badly because of this disturb¬
ance. You can see this, for instance, from all the gurglings and violence
that are shown if you happen to pour water with some force when you
wish to fill a barrel or other vessel having a narrow entrance. Think, then,
how much more the bronze must do this, for it is much more inimicable
to the nature ofthe air than are cold, moist, and subtle things. Therefore it
is necessary to make on one side the entrance for the earthy material and
the fire, and on the other side the exit for the water and air so that the
cavity of your mould may be filled with your liquefied material in every
part without hindrance.
But in addition to this it is necessary to use a certainjudgment in the be¬
ginning to put the entrance in such a place that the metal can run every¬
where, and so that, as it gradually fills, it may bear down upon itself [Sqf]
in order to permit that which is pressed forward to reach into all the
extremities and tiny hollows in the mould. You will also aid this with art
by making several hollow runners which lead some ofthe larger mass to
the places into which you fear it may not go by itself. And ifyou wish to
make entirely sure ofthis, make a vent which leaves the mould at the very
top.
Summarizing, the more vents you make on your moulds and the wider
the entrances, the surer you will be of a good result in your casting, ifyou
have melted well. I neither know nor am able to say any more about this.
THE TENTH CHAPTER
In General Concerning the Baking of
Moulds to Be Cast in Bronze. Having shown you before how moulds ofstatues and also those
of guns are constructed, I wish to tell you at present how, ifyou
wish to cast them in bronze, you are further to prepare and
arrange these moulds so that they may receive the melted mass of the
metals in a friendly manner and without disturbance.
I know that you understand that a real and intense heat has been intro-
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 250
duced into these metals by the fire when they are melted and that they
have become a material of a nature almost the opposite of their original
state. Indeed, I am sure you know that all hot things are direct enemies of
everything cold and moist. Now, the mould is ofclay, and, as you know,
clay is cold in its own nature, and it not only becomes moist but its cold¬
ness is increased by the water that is put in it in order to hquefy it and
render it manageable and soft. It is therefore necessary to free it as much as
possible from both these things ifyou wish to enjoy the fruits ofthe work
and of your labors. Two opposites cannot dwell together, so, as a means
of driving them both out, recourse is had to the aid and force offire, as
their opposite. This is called the baking. For otherwise, as reason shows
you and as the result would show even more clearly, you could not make
the melted bronze enter the mould without great disturbance, because, as
you know, wherever cold and moistness are found enclosed and heat is
brought in upon them, they are changed into a thick, windy, and airy
vapor. This would not only be ready to dispute the entrance of the
bronze, but also as a moist and liquid thing it overcomes with its moisture
and great coldness the violently introduced heat in the watery and earthy
materials [i.e., the bronze] which, disposed to return to their former states,
would become cold and hard.
Thus, in short, it is necessary to bake every mould that you wish to cast
in, in order to avoid those dangerous boilings and great disturbances
which the molten bronze produces and which, in addition to the harm
that would result to the mould, would also cause your casting to come out
incomplete. Ifindeed [90] it should be complete, because of great forcing
ofthe material, it would be full ofholes and spongy on the inside and per¬
haps also on the outside, and it would occasion much loss ofmaterial be¬
cause of its great boiling, gushing, and overflowing. And it would per¬
haps not undergo these losses without injuring you personally or those
who found themselves standing about in order to help you or to watch.
Thus, in short, it would be an obvious sign ofignorance to wish to cast
without baking, and, indeed, without baking very well.
Now this process is done differently according to the works and the
opinions ofthe masters, but usually all the moulds are baked either from
the outside or from the inside with charcoal or flames from dry wood as is
most satisfactory for the craftsman. Those for statues are necessarily baked
from the outside because there is no way of putting the charcoal inside,
nor should it be put there, not even for making the tongues offlame pass
CHAPTER 10 BAKING MOULDS 251
through, since the places are closed and without outlets, particularly
where the inside spaces are narrow and twisting as are these. When you
wish to bake them, a retainer of brick ends is made around the mould,
four dita from it and ofthe same height. It is filled with as much charcoal
as it can contain, indeed it is heaped up, and the fire is gradually applied.
When it is all burning the charcoal is left to consume itself until it goes
out. Remember that wherever possible you should make as a useful aid a
hole at the top ofthe mould which acts as an outlet so that the moisture,
driven out by the heat ofthe fire, can easily escape through it. There are
some others who usually make around it a little furnace built with clay
and almost closed above with a flat vault; and they bake it gradually with
flames from wood. Other methods ofbaking the moulds ofstatues I have
neither seen nor heard of.
Moulds for guns are baked in three or at least two different ways since
they are in three pieces. The chiefmould, the first piece, is baked with dry
wood from the inside. It is customary to do this also in two ways. One is
by laying the mould on its side and applying flames offire from finely
split dry wood inside until it is heated and red all over. This result is very
well attained within three or four hours.
There are some others who bake these moulds in an upright position,
placing them over a httle furnace made for this purpose with a hole in the
middle as wide as the third part ofthe diameter ofthe whole circumfer¬
ence ofthe inside space ofthe mould, so that the flames may enter through
it and pass through the middle along the whole length ofthe mould up to
the top without striking any ofthe sides. For wherever it touches it burns
the clay and injures the mould. Continuing in this way the fire becomes so
hot that the whole mould becomes hot and red. It is held at this point
until the flames pass strongly through the mouth above; it will then be
baked throughout to the thickness of a cord. When it is like this, it is
plugged up with something on top, and then left to cool.
Take care in applying the fire that it be little and slow rather than swift
and too much, [gov] Take care also when baking that the flames receive
no draft because it would cause the mould to melt down and be destroyed,
or it would make large cracks inside. Ofthe two methods this is the one
that I have used when I needed to.
For my own greater convenience when the moulds were large, 1 have
always baked them in the pit. In baking those moulds that I have had to
handle in order to attach pieces, 1 have also always taken pains to do this in
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 252
places as convenient as possible, for baked clay breaks easily and is mended
with difficulty when broken. Nor do I know how to say more than I
have said concerning the baking of this part that forms the outside of
guns.
When you wish to bake the cores that are the second part ofthe moulds,
place them horizontally on the ground resting on pieces ofbricks, set cross¬
wise, half a hraccio from each other. It should be laid exactly level with the
plummet so that the fire, shrinking the earth and making the iron that is
inside become pliant, may not twist the core, which often happens if one
is not careful. Then make all around it a retainer ofbricks at a distance of
three dita from every side so that it extends along its whole length. This is
filled with charcoal; fire is apphed and it is slowly allowed to become very
hot, adding charcoal wherever you see that the core has been well covered
[sic] and allowing it to burn as long as it lasts until it goes out by itself
without touching it. Then when it has cooled enough to be easily handled,
it is cleaned, replastered wherever it needs it, and covered again with wash
ashes and white of egg. Some thin this with wine and some with water.
Then, ifit is not bound underneath with iron wire, it is now so bound,
with two dita or less between turns. Thus it is completely finished so that
it can be put in its place in the mould.
I have also seen cores baked in an upright position by a Genoese master
who did not know how to guard against their twisting in the baking. He
hung them up from above with a good binding ofiron wire and made a
little cage ofiron plates around them half a hraccio high. This was bent in
underneath to the thickness ofthe core and was full ofholes at the bottom
and at the sides. He filled it full of charcoal and ignited it. Then he pro¬
ceeded to bake its whole length half a hraccio at a time. This is surely a
device to be ridiculed because, in addition to taking more time and greater
labor, I cannot believe that it baked well and evenly or that it did not
produce the opposite effect.
When the other part is to be baked, that is, the moulds for the breech,
they are laid flat on the ground and a retainer of brick ends is made
around them two dita high on top of the edge of the mould. Only the
inside space where the bronze is to enter is filled with charcoal and the fire
is lighted. It is kept going inside until you see that it is fiery and red, and in
this way it is baked.
Alternatively, a circle ofbrick ends is made and filled with charcoal and
a fire is applied there. [91] When you see that it is burning well, the
CHAPTER 10 BAKING MOULDS 253
mould of your breech is put over it with the hollow turned toward the
fire, but high enough above it so that it avoids touching the charcoal by
three dita, and the sides ofthe mortises are saved from baking. Then, as is
customary, leave the fire until it goes out by itself
You could also bake the moulds with flames from dry wood by arrang¬
ing them inverted over the brick ends as I have told you. These are the
methods that are customary in baking and in arranging the moulds of
guns and every other mould of any kind whatever according to the con¬
venience, desire, and ability ofthe masters.
Having prepared the moulds thus, remember that when you wish to
cast them, you should see that they are well cooled and if they have
formed any cracks (from the baking, because of poorly attached clay,
because of the shrinking to which they are very prone by nature, or be¬
cause of the drafts that may have struck them while they were cooling)
replaster them again very well with a plaster made of white of egg,
crushed brick, and quicklime; or, in place of brick, use clay from moulds
that have been baked and cast. Then, when you have cleaned them inside
and dusted them well by blowing in them with a little bellows or a cane
tube, apply all over a layer of young ram’s-horn ashes finely ground on
the porphyry or in the potter’s mortar with a large millstone and water.
This done, carefully fit all the pieces in their places. In case a part has been
altered by the baking, shape it with a rasp, an iron cutting tool, or with
something else so that it may be true again.
Ifit is a gun mould, which for many reasons must necessarily be cast in
an upright position, as I have told you before, make a pit or well, however
it may be called, in front ofthe melting furnace as deep as the length of
the mould and so much deeper that when the mould is put exactly in its
place there may be an inchne from the outlet ofthe furnace to the mould
so that the bronze may easily run in. If, because ofthe weight ofthe mould
and the difficulty ofhandling it, you did not put it in this pit for the bak¬
ing, put it in now, and, when it has been placed there, put the core in
position so that it is held firmly in place by means ofthe disc at the top and
the iron collar at the bottom and is exactly in the middle of the inside
space. Then, having plugged the gates and vents with tow, unite the
breech mould with the largest mould at its junction point. See that it is
very well closed in all its parts. The armature hooks that are at the ends of
the moulds that are to be joined together and are bent in opposite direc¬
tions from each other must be very well bound with several turns ofiron
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 254
wire. By winding it with the point of a slightly bent iron tool tighten it
more and make this binding stronger.
Then, ifyou did not make the mould for the trunnions at the same time
as the first outer mould, they should be closed with two plates of baked
clay made for the purpose, or closed with two half bricks ground to¬
gether and flattened. Bind both places with the hooks of two iron crosses
in the same way that you bound the breech, thus closing it up well.
The core is likewise secured by putting a good iron spike in the hole
that you made in the core iron under the heel, and there are [91 f] two
spikes which should cross and also project from each side at the top ofthe
mould. Bind them in the same way with iron wires to the armature;
make the points ofthese take hold well on this armature with two or four
stirrups, so that you can secure it with the core, which has perforce to re¬
main in the middle; and hold it up well at the neck so that it cannot in any
way lift out either from the molten bronze (as the nature ofbronze causes
all things to do) or from the mould, as once happened to me and to many
another master whom I could name.
Now when this mould has been thus prepared with all the aforesaid
attention, when all the junctions are well fdled and plastered with moist
clay or some other plaster, and when all the gates and vents have been
properly formed and fitted with clay plugs which close the places exactly,
keep every entrance well plugged either with these plugs, when dry, or
with tow. As a further precaution, tie a cloth over it in order to cover it
better. Understand that if the plugs should become loosened through
much handling of the things, it could easily happen that clay pebbles,
charcoal, or something else, finding no obstacle, would enter the mould.
And ifnot by chance, this could happen by the hand ofsome wretch who
wished to harm you.
When you have brought your mould to this point, I advise you to con¬
trive to cast it as soon as possible so that it may not absorb any moisture
from the earth, which it is very ready to do. Now arrange this, or these if
there are several, in the aforesaid pit opposite the outlets of the bronze,
placing their gates so that they may receive the molten bronze through a
channel, and taking care that the bottom of the pit is hard so that it may
not give way under the weight.
After you have put your mould in upright, I exhort you above every
other precaution to press the earth down well all around it with stamps
and to see that you make it hard with the blows. Proceed to put in fine
CHAPTER II CASTING GUNS 255
earth in layers of three dita or httle more, pressing down with the said
stamps without sparing your strength until you have filled the whole pit
level with the furnace with the said well-pressed and sohd soil. In order
that this earth may become better sohdified and united together it should
be somewhat moist but not wet, for if possible it should become like a
mass ofstone in this process.
Having filled up the pit in this way, make a chaimel ofbricks or a clay
conduit, a quarter of a braccio in both width and height, between the
mould and the outlet for the bronze in the furnace. Cover it with ashes
and then bake it very well with charcoal or wood, so that when you see
that the bronze is melted and ready and you take it out through this con¬
duit to bring it to the gate ofthe mould it may feel no moisture or cold¬
ness. Having done this and having also baked the bowl, when you see
that your bronze has arrived at the good and true readiness ofits fusion,
clean the channel and the bowl of the gate of every tiny thing and, by
striking with an iron rod in the hole that was arranged as an outlet ofyour
furnace, cause the bronze to run out hke an oil. In this way you will fill
your moulds ofstatues, guns, bells, or whatever else you have made.
If you proceed thus without error in these processes you will have the
fruit ofyour labors in accordance with your wishes.
[92] THE ELEVENTH CHAPTER
Admonitions and Cautions That Should he Observed
in Gunmaking. SINCE it seems to me that guns are ofgreater importance in the art of
casting than any of the other things that are made by it, and that
they require more foresight and care because they need many per¬
fections, I wish now to repeat certain useful and necessary precautions in
corroboration, for though I have already spoken to you ofthem in some
detail, the power has not been granted me to pass with one breath com¬
pletely through a subject with many parts. Therefore it will not be weari¬
some to you to hear the same thing told again, because it will not be
without amplification of some pertinent points. For this reason I have
prepared the present discourse, which I have called admonitions.
The first of these concerns the making of the pattern upon which the
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 256
principal mould ofthe gun is built. For this you should have, in preference
to any other sort ofwood, a dry and seasoned fir as long and thick as the
gun requires. Fir is the most suitable as you have heard and will hear
again, because it is a wood that is naturally straight, supports the weight
well, and does not warp like the other woods either from heat or from
the moisture of water. In short, whenever possible, you should make
the spindle ofthis, working it exactly into the shape that you wish the gun
to be. Pivot this on two trestles set mto the ground and make it project out
from the journal, at the foot as much as is necessary in order to attach a
lever for rotating it, and at the head as much as is necessary to make the
journal and cornices and to form the feeding head. Have this pattern
worked exactly either round or in straight or discontinuous flutings
with its every measurement exactly as you wish the gun to be in
bronze.
If you do not have a piece of wood thick enough to obtain the right
size, it can be built up, ifnot with wood, with clay, as ifit were worked of
wood. In case you were in a place where you could not obtain firs, or if
you had them but they were not of a sufficient length and thickness, it
would be necessary to graft them together with mortises and strengthen
them well with iron bands and glued joints. Ifyou should have to use an¬
other wood, dry oak is the best. They can also be made with chestnut,
pine, and cypress, but these should be turned with one head against the
other and bound in the middle or else accompanied by another kind of
similar wood. They should be glued well with cheese glue, properly
fitted together, and well tightened and bound with four or six iron bands
that are somewhat wide. Then, ifyou wish to build your pattern ofwood
on this, see that you have boards offir without knots and proceed to shape
it on this hke the staves of a lute.
Ifyou wish to complete the pattern with clay instead ofwith wood, first
wrap it aU over with a rope one dito thick with the turns close to each
other, so that the wood may be protected from feeling either the heat or
the moisture [92^] and also so that it may help hold the joints together
better. This is as much as I wish to warn you in the first admonition con¬
cerning the spindle.
Now when this model has been thus put together and worked and its
journals made, pivot it accurately on two trestles that are well set in the
ground, and put those cornices that seem suitable to you at the mouth,
taking care that they are not ofa kind that has undercuts, too many divi-
CHAPTER II CASTING GUNS 257
sions, or too much projection. Do the same at the foot; and near the outer
ends, against the work, make two wheels of a suitable thickness, tapered
in opposite directions, extending one dito higher than the work, and as
true as possible. Between this wheel and the mouth make a large ball or
feeding head with the same strickle board as the wheel. The disc that
holds the core in the middle is placed in one of these wheels and the
breech in the other.
Also be careful to place the journals or trunnions, however they may be
called, at two-fifths of the length of the gun, for otherwise they would
not be in their proper place, and what happens to him who places them
haphazardly would happen to you. For if he puts them too far back the
muzzle hits the ground, hfting the breech up in the air, and it can almost
be said that they are useless guns because they cannot be fired to strike
where desired. If the trunnions are put too far forward the gun loses
itselfin the bed between the wheels so that it cannot be loaded well, for it
is so heavy at the loophole that one man by himself cannot handle it
without one or two helpers. It is a reprehensible thing ifthe master allows
it to fall into either ofthese errors.
Take care also to prepare the mould in such a way that it fits accurately
at the head and at the foot, so that the core may meet with the iron collar
in the middle. For ifit should vary so that it should not meet exactly, it
would not give the right thickness ofbronze either at the foot or the head
and it would make the gun dangerous to whoever had to fire it, ugly to
the sight, and not without shame for the master who had made it.
Furthermore, whether you make the cornices of wood or of clay, as I
told you above, be careful to make them without undercuts and in such a
way that when the spindle has been drawn out of the mould (after you
have first taken out the nails that held them) they may all fall out or be
easily taken out. Otherwise they will break the mould and spoil its
beauty.
Take care, moreover, to cover your pattern well with ashes when you
have completely finished it or else to grease it with tallow or pork fat so
that the first layers ofclay may not stick to it and so not come away when
you wish.
Be careful, also, in making the mould, to mix the clay well together,
rubbing it with the palm ofthe hand and mixing the dry with water and
with moist clay, so that it may not be lumpy but ofone body if possible.
See also that the clays are fine and uniform because they dry better and
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 258
form no cracks or only a few. But if by chance the clay were of a bad
nature and you had none other with which to correct it, or you should not
know how, having made your clay soft and having warmed the mould
strongly, proceed to spread it out thinly and dry it layer by layer with a
good fire as you apply it, or [93] strengthen it by binding it round with
hemp, strings, or long rye straw.
Be careful in making the mould, when you have reached approxi¬
mately the thickness that you wish, to encircle it well at the penultimate
layer with iron wire in order to give it greater strength, and to apply the
last layer of clay over this. When it has dried very well, strengthen it with
an armature ofiron rods as I have taught you in its place.
Take care also, when you have removed the mould from the pattern, to
plaster it again and repair it with soft clay wherever it needs it, and to fit
the breech and the core disc at the head so that they go in exactly. Then
make your gates and vents in their places, wide and capacious, tending to
be rather too large than too narrow and small. Finally, with a sponge
cover this mould very well with wash ashes or young horn ashes, and at
the end bake it very well either with wood or charcoal with one of the
methods which I have shown you before. Ifit should form any crack dur¬
ing the baking, repair it again with crushed brick, hme, and egg whites.
In the same way bake the core and the breech, and when they have been
baked put the pieces together again in their places in order to be sure that
the fire has not changed them. Ifit has, you can repair them before coming
to the process ofjoining the moulds together.
If all is well, put the principal mould in the pit if you do not already
have it there, and patiently fit all the pieces together with it, beginning by
placing the disc, then the core, and at last the breech, which you bind with
Brescian wire to the iron hooks made especially for the purpose. Then
make the core fast by passing one or two spikes through its holes in order
to make sure that the bronze will not lift it up. Having done this, gradu¬
ally fill the entire pit with somewhat damp and compressed earth and
press it down very well with stamps, layer by layer. In this, you must
imagine that the mould and the whole inside ofthe pit are to be one piece
because much depends on this.
Finally, when it has been filled and your channels have been made and
baked, give your attention to the melting; first, to have the furnace well
heated with the metal properly charged into it, and to have as far as pos¬
sible good and perfect wood that is well seasoned and dry, because the
CHAPTER II CASTING GUNS 259
vigor of the fire and the force of the whole depends on this. Be careful
also not to let yourself be carried away by impatience into wishing to
force the process more than the art allows by its nature. Do not touch the
furnace until you see the bronze spread out in fusion, and if you wish to
accelerate it when the materials are ready you may help it with some tin.
Continue to apply fire until the materials come to that subtlety which is
called melting. Finally, in order to make more certain, put a dry chestnut
stick through one of the openings and, touching the bottom with the
point, pass over the diameter of the furnace by pushing it in various
places and searching at the taphole plug, at the entrance ofthe flame, and
at the sides to see whether there are any pieces ofunmelted bronze. Ifyou
find it all without any hardness and evenly liquefied you can be sure that
it is melted, but you should make a further test by putting in a hot iron rod
and stirring with this. When you take it from the furnace [931^] look to
see that it is clean, without anything attached to it. Then with a rake of
wood or iron you will be able to clean it inside, drawing off every super¬
fluity from the bronze through one or both ofthe furnace openings. Hav¬
ing cleaned it, take some bronze out with a little ladle or something else
and make a test. If you see that it needs more tin according to what you
wish, give it the desired quantity. Then when you have stirred it well in
order to incorporate the alloy throughout, heat it again somewhat, and
finally, finding it in the state ofliquefaction and readiness that I described
to you above, clean the channels well and grease them thoroughly with a
httle fat. Then, striking against the taphole plug with moderate blows of
your crook, fill your moulds in a well-controlled manner. If these have
been baked well and have good and large vents, they will receive it
quietly.
Note also that if*those guns that you are to cast do not have a quantity
ofbronze at the mouth as an excess that presses down and makes them fat,
although the mouths will fill up, lower down in the tlhnner parts the cast¬
ings will be spongy and full of holes. For this reason I remind you that
when you are casting and you see that your mould is full a little beyond
the muzzle, then have some tin thrown into the furnace or have some cut
pieces ofit put in the channel where the bronze flows, so that when the
feeding head becomes fat with tin it will not only press down but will
also give fatness to the muzzle in the place where without this it would
* This assumes se non harano for che non harano.
26o PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI
remain lean.* Thus it will be close, dense, and safe, and pleasing to the
sight in its beauty.
There are many more precautions that are necessary in this art than I
have told you, but I shall not tell you all ofthem in the present discourse,
nor shall I describe them to you in the various parts of this work; but if
you do not find all ofthem by reading you will at least find many.
But, to conclude, there are five steps in this art and you cannot fail in
one ofthem, nor should you, for on each depends the whole. The first is
to make the moulds in the way told you; the second is to bake them well;
the third is to arrange and seal them up well in the pit; the fourth (the
most important and the soul ofthe whole) is to melt well; and the fifth is
to put enough material into your furnace so that you fill your moulds to
overflowing. By following these general rules not only in making guns
but also in every other work of casting, you will be rewarded with profit
and honor.
[94] THE TWELFTH CHAPTER
IVays ofMaking Mouldsfor All Sizes ofBells; Their
Measurements; and the Procedurefor Bells, Mortars,
Basins, and Other Similar Vessels. IT has been discovered by skilled bell founders, more through experi¬
ence than from geometrical calculation (although calculation does
enter), that a certain relationship of dimensions in both large and
small bells makes the tone and the weight almost certainly what is desired.
This is in addition to the customary shape which is, according to the his¬
torians, perhaps that found by the first discoverers ofbells. Among them¬
selves bell founders have made a rule of these measurements and have
called it the bell scale. Beginning with the small ones weighing ten
pounds, it increases by degrees to a point where, as I have seen, they are
able to make them even twenty-five and thirty thousand pounds. This
scale is ofgreat enhghtenment ifone does not have a bell already made for
comparison.
* The “leanness” at the mouth of the gun is, of course, what is now termed inverse
segregation and results from impoverishment oftin in the last parts ofthe alloy to sohdify.
The addition ofmore tin as the feeding head was being filled would not only compensate
for this but also would provide a more fluid metal for feeding the normal shrinkage.
CHAPTER 12 BELL FOUNDING 261
To do tliis, they have taken as their guide and basis the rim* ofthe bell
which they wish to make, that is, the place where the clapper strikes with
the head to sound it. This must be made thicker in metal than any other
part so that it will support tliis striking more safely. It is made according
to the following rule.
First of all, in an open space on the ground or on a smooth board, the
bell is drawn exactly as high and as wide as you wish it to be, and with all
its parts. Make it attractive and ornamented by following the measure¬
ments of the scale, and with your good judgment and the art of design.
Then you are to consider the cause ofthe sound, which is a certain effect
proceeding from the access of air which circulates outside and touches it,
and perhaps from that which is enclosed within. According to the shape
of the vessel, this either spreads out and expands outwardly easily when
the bell is struck with the motion ofthe percussion, or it remains in it or in
part ofit, and thus makes the sound that comes from it. However, there
are various opinions ofthe masters concerning this, not only among the
modems but also among those who are called ancients, as we are shown
by those bells seen in certain old abbeys and churches and which have the
shape ofbaskets or washtubs or long and narrow melons rather than bells.
The men oftoday make most ofthem from a square, by making them as
long as they are wide at the bottom. I like them better longer by one part
in fourteen than they are wide.
But in order that you may understand more easily the method ofmak¬
ing this design exact, let us return to the procedure of drawing. In this,
first make a line on a piece of paper or in one ofthe aforesaid places.f In
order to make the height, extend this to fourteen times the measurement
that the beU scale gives you as the thickness of the rim in relation to the
weight. Then on a transverse hne at the foot put six and a half units on
each side, or seven, ifyou wish to make its width the same; and at the top,
on another transverse line extend one-halfthe height, which will be three
and a half units on each side. Then between the four points [94V] of the
transverse lines extend two other lines which form the surface of a trun¬
cated pyramid. Then, within the space made by these lines, draw the hol¬
low space of the bell, that is, the outlines of the filled-in body of the
* In modern terminology, “sound bow.”
\ The steps in designing the bell are illustrated in Fig. VII in the Appendix, which was
constructed solely on the basis of Biringuccio’s instructions. Figures 32 and 36 illustrate
some ofthe points, but poorly.
262 PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI
mould; this is called the core and forms the hollow space ofthe bell. Make
this accurately, taking away the extreme points ofthe two lines according
to yourjudgment or with compasses, keeping whatever is suitable. Then
(from a fixed point) draw a semicircle which touches both the extreme
top points of the two [shortened] lines. Because this is round and in an
upper position, it is called the crown.* Then proceed to shape the core
and give a beautiful form to it. After this make a base at the foot, under¬
neath the work, which is called the pedestal and serves to support the
outer mould and to hold it together in such a way that the molten metal
cannot issue from it, as I shall show you.
In order to make this part in the drawing extend the two Lines of the
pyramid downwards, from the line that shows the width, the thickness
that you wish to make the rim. Then mark it on this plane in height and
the same distance outward from the outer edge ofthe core, and from the
highest point on the inside to the lowest point on the outside draw a line
that divides it in the middle like the diagonal of a square. This will be the
hollowed-out part under the rim which is called the hp and is the lowest
part of the bell. Above this is the rim itself, from which no part of the
thickness is removed, for this is the part that receives the blow ofthe clap¬
per and this must be made so that the bell may not break easily. Then, at
about two-thirds ofthe thickness ofthe rim above this where the curving
ascent begins, give it the thickness also oftwo-thirds the rim. Then, at the
three-unit point you are to give it two and a half of the aforesaid units,
[decreasing] until at the nine-unit point you are to give it three-sevenths
the thickness of the rim; going from the nine to the twelve-unit point,
make it one-halfthe rim.]' The rest, which is where the inscription is put and
where the crown begins to curve, is to be gradually thickened. The arch is
not a place that gives sound, and it must be strong and powerful because
the hook for hanging the clapper is to be underneath and the handle or
cannon is on top to sustain the whole weight as well as the forces that
move it when ringing. Therefore, it is to be given the whole thickness of
the rim and more ifyou wish, without error. Having completed this sys¬
tem of thickness throughout, draw a Hne that touches all the points and
*cielo, literally sky or vaulted ceiling. Biringuccio uses the word corona (literally
crown) for the cannon.
f dipoi alle tre p[ar]ti due e mezzo p[re]ditte gli hauerete a dare sopra a questofino alle noue
gli hauete a dar U tre settimi deVorlo & dale noue jino alii XII la meta del orlo. Two and a halfis
probably in error for one-half
CHAPTER 12 BELL FOUNDING 263
makes the outline. Thus you will have exactly drawn a bell in which you
will see its shape and the thickness of the metal between one outhne and
the other. Ifthis satisfies you, it will be finished.
From this drawing first take the measurement for making a spindle of
oak or some other kind of dry seasoned wood as long and thick as is
necessary for the work which you are to make. Support tliis spindle on
two trestles well fixed in the ground, in such a way that it may turn truly
when rotated with a cross or some other lever put at the thickest part at
the foot. This spindle should be as much longer than is needed for resting
it on the journals as is necessary for making the moulds, and at the head
and foot you can make it [95] so that it may stand conveniently before
the fire to dry the clay apphed to the mould without burning the trestles.
On top ofthe spindle form a mass of clay, somewhat shorter than the
length that the bell is to have, pyramidal in shape, thick at the foot and
narrow at the top, accurately made with a rule or with the corner of an
evenly shaped board. In order to make this more quickly and hghter for
large bells, most masters make it ofwood and smooth it over with clay.
They call this first part the core support.* They make it correspond
throughout to one-third the thickness that the core is to have, and, hav¬
ing done this, they apply wash ashes all over it and thicken it with ordinary
moulding clay to the degree ofthickness that the core is to have.
For this you have the outside of all the outlines of the core cut in the
edge of a board of dry and well-seasoned nut of one-third [palmo thick]
just as the drawing that you made shows. By cutting, first make the hol¬
low for the pedestal where the cope is united by mortising as I have told
you. Then cut out and make the hollow for all the rest. With this pattern
board fixed to the trestles, the core is adjusted exactly to the right thick¬
ness, drying each layer of clay very well with fire as it is applied, using
every care to hold the layers together. In order that the clay may not
yield, make it secure at the back before you apply it to the core support,
and then also the cope when you bring it up to the wood, so that when
turned the mould cannot give way or slip forward because ofits heavy￾movement or unwieldy weight. For this could happen before it was
finished if one were not careful in regard to the ashes that are underneath
the mould.
Then, when it is finished and has been made true and smooth with fine
clay, ashes are appHed all over it, and the beginning ofthe case is formed
* roccha, literally fortress, tower, or castle.
264 PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI
on top ofthis with moulding clay. Although it is called thus, it means the
exact pattern of what the bell is to be in metal. Then cut either in the
same board or in another the exact outside ofthe outlines ofthe drawing
ofthe bell, as you did for the core. Then put this second board in the same
holes on the trestles where stood the one with which you prepared the
core, adding clay where it is lacking to the case already begun and making
it as accurate as possible. Carefully make it smooth with fme clay, always
maintaining in all its parts the measurements taken from the drawing so
that there is no variation in thickness or thinness. For the thick bell makes
a weak and wretched sound and the thin one is shrill and makes a sound
harsh to the ear, in addition to being hable to the danger of breaking
easily. *
Then in the aforesaid board, two dita below the place where the arching
ofthe crovm begins, make three notches that form two divisions ofspace
which can be filled with appropriate inscriptions of prayer or whatever
you wish. Likewise on the point ofthe lip, at the bottom ofthe rim, or at
the beginning ofthe curving ascent, make [951^] httle cornices as places for
borders or leaves in order to make your work beautiful and ornate. They
should be made in bas-relief, however, so as not to deform it.
Then, having replaced the board on the trestles and having brought it
near the core and fixed it in its usual holes, apply, on top ofthe clay ofthe
case, melted tallow tempered with oil or lard so that it may be softer, and
even it all up with this tallow, continually rotating toward the board.
Then in the places chosen at your wish put in the letters, borders, leaves,
coats of arms, or other ornaments made ofwax. Then on the pattern thus
completely finished apply with a brush or by hand hquid, fine, and sifted
clay mixed with iron scale or young ram’s-horn ashes, with or without
other admixture as you wish. Leave this to dry well or let it dry out by
itself in the wind or in the sun. Every time that this clay has dried apply
more ofit up to three or four layers. Then apply the clay by hand, binding
it with a few threads ofhemp tow, and you may begin to dry it before the
fire, rotating it often. When it is dry apply the second and similarly the
third and the fourth layer ofclay, indeed as many as are necessary to bring
it to a suitable thickness.
When finished in this way it is bound all over with iron wire, once or
twice depending on whether the bells are large or small, wrapping the
wire on it with a distance of two dita between turns. Afterward, for
* The 1540 edition reads “with difficulty.”
CHAPTER 12 BELL FOUNDING 265
greater security, an armature is made ofiron rods and bands in almost the
same way as you did for guns. When it has been thus evened up with clay,
finished, and well dried, take the mould from the supports, having first
cut away the superfluous clay that you put there in order to hold the
moulds firm.
Having smoothed it and made it very true, mark it with two or three
cuts which pass through both a part of the pedestal and the lowermost
part ofthe cope so that there may be a matching point in order that it may
be returned to exactly the same place as it was before when you wish to fit
them together for casting. Then, having done this, strike the end of the
journal at the top with a forceful blow, and extract the mass that is called
the core support together with the spindle. Finally, stand the mould up¬
right and prepare the place for the crown on top so as to be able to fit in
exactly the mould for the handles, or the cannons as they are commonly
called. In the empty space in the middle where the core support was, you
then apply fire by filling it with charcoal and wood. Allow the mould to
dry out well in that place and keep the fire inside not only until you know
that the mould is dry but until it is so hot that the heat passes through the
cope outside.
Then, having tied several ropes with hemp to the hooks of the arma¬
ture, draw up with a pulley and windlass or some other device and in this
way remove the cope. Hold it suspended, or put it aside so that it rests on
something that is firm and high enough so that you can enter inside it, ifit
is a large mould, in order to examine and repair it where necessary. Like¬
wise [96] slit the case at one side with an iron cutting tool and tear it offif
you cannot take it off whole and lay it aside. Having laid bare the core,
repair it where necessary, and you will have the two earthen moulds
which, one can say, are almost finished, when you have fitted the clapper
hook in the core and the mould for the cannons in the cope. I shall soon
teach you these things so that you may bring everything to its end.
When they have been made these things are the moulds that are fitted
together and, because ofthe absence ofthe case between the core and the
cope, they form the empty space that when filled with metal produces
the bell with each measurement and thickness as it was made in the
drawing and given to the case.
It is possible that the measurements ofthe bell scale may vary in weight
because it has passed through many hands or because it has not been fol¬
lowed with the necessary degree of accuracy or because of variations in
266 PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI
length and thickness. For this reason it has been found that in order to
proceed with an eye to safety, it is advisable to weigh the clay ofthe case
exactly. You should know that every pound of clay makes a space for
seven pounds of metal, some clays for seven and a half, and some for
eight, depending on whether it is pure or mixed with things that make it
light. Make your calculation with this information, adding the weight of
the cannons according to yourjudgment and further adding the melting
loss of the material, depending on whether it is old or new, coppery or
fine in tin. Some ofthese materials will decrease 5, others 6, 7, and 8 per
hundred, but the custom ofthe masters is to calculate with 10 in order to
be safe and so that it may turn to their advantage. Thus you will know
exactly how much material you must put in the furnace so that none will
be lacking in making the bell. You can also tell from the said calculations
and experience the exact, or almost exact, weight that the bell will have
when made. Remember also that you must put in the furnace an addi¬
tional reserve for the overflow, for without this no casting will ever turn
out well or only very rarely.
Now, in order to make the third part that is lacking from the complete
mould, namely that for the handles, there are two methods. One is to
make them ofwax on the bottom ofa copper kettle or on a piece ofwood
or clay rounded like the crown ofthe bell. Some make them entirely by
hand and some cast them in pieces in plaster-of-Paris moulds. When this
has been done and their gates and vents arranged, the mould for the
handles is easily made. When it has been made and the wax has been taken
out with fire, its empty impression remains. There are some others who
make the ring and handles ofclay in order to avoid expense, but they are
looking for trouble and work. They mould these in halves and join them
together. However, make them any way you wish or as they turn out
best for you, as long as they are strong and stay well fixed in their places
in the cope.Join these together well with clay, and ifyou have not already
done so, make a vent on each arm of the handle. On top of the eye of
the middle peg [ring?] make the gate with its large bowl for filling the
mould. Then this first mould will be finished in clay after it has been re¬
plastered and cleaned.
[961^] Now, in order to finish the core completely, fit into the empty
space that was left by the spindle ofthe core support a mass of clay con¬
taining a stirrup-shaped piece of iron inside. This is the thing called the
clapper hook, which is to hold the clapper attached. It should project out-
CHAPTER 12 BELL FOUNDING 267
wards enough, with its ends somewhat bent, so that it may hold the thick¬
ness ofbronze that you wish as a support. When this mass ofclay has been
well dried, fit it in its place with soft clay and also prepare the curve that
forms the crown. In case it should seem that the clay did not join itself
well with the other already in that place because it had been fired, make
your usual composition of crushed brick or baked clay with white of egg
and a httle lime, and plaster well every httle crack or flake that the clay
forms. Remember to place the iron, that is, the attachment for the clapper,
so that it comes at right angles to the handles, for you would be obhged to
turn the bell ifit did not strike in its right place.
Having thus brought everything properly to its end and wishing to cast,
you must bake both moulds. First the core is surrounded with dry brick
ends like a httle furnace, built as high as the core with a distance offour
dita between the core and the wall; this entire space is then filled with
charcoal. The cope is placed over the charcoal, resting on the wall ofthe
furnace so that this is also baked with the same fire. Then a flaming fire of
dry wood is apphed between the cope and the core until the coals begin to
ignite the charcoal. Then the fire is gradually ignited down to the very
bottom and bakes both the moulds. In case either the core or the cope has
formed any cracks or flaking ofimproperly Joined clay, repair them with
a plaster ofwhite of egg.
Then, having covered them with ashes, set them in the pit in front of
the furnace, first putting in the core, which should rest on a star or cross of
wood that projects on every side. This pit should be deep enough so that
it covers the whole mould and should have a hard bottom so that the
weight will not make the core sink down, as often happens. Therefore, I
told you to put a star or cross underneath in order that you can bind with
bands ofiron or wood so as to embrace the cope in the middle in such a
way that the core cannot move, or ifit does, it cannot move without the
cope. It would be safer ifyou do not have firm ground to make the bot¬
tom ofwalnut or some other kind ofboards, ifnot of bricks.
Then fill the pit with earth, beating it down with clubs and gradually
packing it well on the mould, as I told you is done with guns. Then melt
and make your channels and by opening the furnace with the crook
when the metal is melted, fill the mould.
It is indeed true that, although it is necessary to use the same things in
small bells, still, because oftheir weaker forces, it is not necessary to use so
many bindings or to have so much labor and dihgence as in the large ones,
268 PIROTECHNIA book vi
in which various difficulties and dangers are encountered. Therefore, [97]
if perchance you should have to make a large and important bell and it
should seem to you that you have not made the mould strong enough and
you should be in doubt as to whether it would stand up, I wish to warn
you to reinforce it with wooden bands or with many bindings of iron
wire or ropes in addition to the usual armature, and to tighten it well.
In casting be careful that the material enters gradually and not suddenly
and that there is enough so that it overflows. See that the metal is per¬
fectly melted but not too hot and, ifyou wish the bell to have a good tone,
be careful not only ofits shape and suitable measurements but also that its
alloy ofmetal be made with good tin that has no lead whatever in it, for
this, besides making the casting ugly, impairs its tone. Some masters say
that by casting it with metal too far in excess of the proper temper it is
given a crude and harsh tone, but, in my opinion, this is a difficult point to
perceive. In short, all bells are made with similar methods and procedures,
but they are more beautiful, more graceful, and better, depending on the
judgment and measurements ofwhosoever makes them.
In the same way are made mortars, basins, and all other vessels that need
to have a hollow in the middle, if they are round in shape. If this is not
the case, it is well to make them round and then to trim them in order
to have a material that is accurately worked so that it may come out uni¬
form throughout the casting.
When the moulds oflarge bells are such that they cannot be cast because
oftheir size, or when the masters do not know how to work them hori¬
zontally on journals, they order them to be made upright with a moving
wooden strickle. This is put at the top on a rod ofiron which projects one
braccio above the work. This should be very firm but arranged so that it
can be taken out when the mould is finished. The strickle should have two
or three rings at the top which fit onto the bar. At the foot a hoop of
wood or iron like that ofa vat is to be made, exactly round, to enclose the
whole circumference of the pedestal of the mould of whatever size you
wish to make. Then the strickle for the core is made with its measure¬
ments following the bell scale, and afterwards a piece ofthe full circle is
affixed to the foot ofthe said strickle, extending a half braccio or more on
each side. As this is turned, it fits into the edge of the circle that you
made for building the core pattern on. Another circle is made at the back
like the one in front which holds the board and does not allow it to move
outwards, acting as an aid to the two rings at the top of the core. Now,
CHAPTER 12 BELL FOUNDING 269
having done this, it is necessary to build a hollow in the middle as the
place for the fire. This should be in the form of a pyramid and is the space
for the staff. At the top it has a little venthole so that the smoke can escape.
It is made of brick ends laid with clay. Underneath there should be a
round pit two braccia deep, and several pieces ofiron should be put across
on top so that when the wood is laid on them to bum, the charcoal and
ashes may fall in.
This hollow pyramid should be covered gradually and thickened with
clay until [971^] the strickle is reached. The moist clays are always dried
each time with the force ofthe heat ofthe fire which is kept going in the
space inside, for ifone wishes to do it well, this should never be slackened
until the mould is completely finished, so that it may not cool. Ifit does
cool it will be difficult to introduce enough heat again to dry the outside
clay because ofits great thickness. Thus you must proceed in making the
entire mould following the method and measurements ofthe others.
These moulds could also be made upright in another way by pivoting
the core between two flat boards, on carriages as windmills are made, put¬
ting in the middle a bar fixed in clay, which extends up to the top so that
when the mould is finished it can be taken out in order to arrange the
cannons there and make the gate. The fire is made outside by means of
two Httle furnaces which reflect the heat ofthe flames, one at the bottom
and the other at the top. The strickles should always stand firm in one
place until the core is finished. Then the board that forms the strickle for
the case is put to form the outside of the bell. This is also finished in the
same way as the others—it is not necessary to repeat how.
I would not give too much thought to making these clay moulds in an
upright position rather than lying down. The difficulty that I know oflies
in drying out the clay and in moving them from their places, although
they can be and should be worked in the pit. I hke the other method bet¬
ter—that of working them in a horizontal position—because it is less
trouble and safer, ifyou proportion your shaft well to the weight and set
it in motion. I know that a great difficulty lies in the fact that they cannot
be castjust where they are worked, as the upright ones can be ifyou work
them in the pit, for the melting furnace can be made wherever you wish.
It is difficult to stand upright a mass of clay that is heavy, large, and un¬
wieldy and also Hable to break and be ruined, yet it is necessary to move
it, stand it upright, and then put it in the pit at the foot ofthe furnace as
well. For this reason one must employ great care and various powerful
270 PIROTECHNIA book vi
devices, in addition to much manpower and not a little patience in order
to do it. Also, it is certainly a very dilFicult thing when you wish to cast to
replace the copes in their places. It is a great mistake ifthey are not fitted
exactly because it makes the bells uneven and liable to break very quickly
and also to have a bad tone, which isjust the opposite ofthe aim in making
them.
There are some masters who think that the tone depends not only on
Figure 32. The bell foundry, showing a reverberatory furnace, the method
oflaying out a bell, and the lathe for turning a bell core.
fitting the moulds exactly, making a good alloy of metals, and properly
melting, but also on the cooling, and for this reason they take them out
hot as soon as they have cast them; often, instead of attaining the de¬
sired temper, the beUs crack in shrinking. There are some others who say
that they should be kept under the ground to cool for as many days as
they are thousands ofpounds in weight but I am convinced ofneither one
thing nor the other. However, it seems to me that many elements are
necessary for makmg good bells; first is good metal and then good shape
and [98] suitable dimensions. It should be uniform all over and cast all at
one time so that it may be clean in the rim and in every part, and it should
be free from every particle ofashes. It should also have its clapper propor¬
tioned to its weight and be pivoted so as to be easily set in motion. Because
oftheir importance, I have in mind to speak to you in detail ofthese last
two parts, in their proper places.
It remains for me to tell you how new beUs improve continually by
CHAPTER 12 BELL FOUNDING 271
being rung for the space ofa year. The reason for this Hes in the consoHda￾tion ofthe rim caused by the clapper blows and also ifthere is any Httle
porosity in the casting, rain water produces a material similar to rust and
closes it.
Figure 33. The bell scale. The length of each line represents the
actual thickness of the rim of a bell of the designated weight
and is the basis ofthe design. The thicknesses are tabulated and
plotted graphically in Fig. VIII in the Appendix.
Now, after all that I have said I wish to show you the degrees of the bell
scale so that nothing may be omitted, although perhaps it should have
been the first thing as the basis of this art, for without it the masters can
work but poorly. As you see, I have begun from the weight often pounds
and have risen by degrees up to ten thousand, not, indeed, entirely from
272 PIROTECHNIA book vi
my own experience, but by comparison with some that I have seen in the
hands of other masters. In the part with which I have happened to have
had experience, I beheve that what is drawn here below will give an
accurate result or will vary but little. The length of each ofthese scales is
the measure ofthe rim and the fourteenth part ofthe height that the bell is
to have according to the weight that is indicated, as you may have been
able to understand when making the drawing. Every other part depends
on this basis, a thing that has been discovered by the masters more through
experience than by geometrical rule, as I have already told you.
M THE THIRTEENTH CHAPTER
The Rule Governing the Weight ofthe Clapper,
Depending on the Sizes ofthe Bells. JUST as I have told you that it is impossible to give an exact rule for
the beU scale, so I say the same concerning the clappers. Yet, if one
wishes the beU to sound well, it is necessary that it have a propor¬
tioned blow; for ifit is struck with a clapper that is hghter than it should
be, it will not give out all the sound that it contains, and ifit is struck with
a heavier one than it can support, it is forced and the sound is made crude
and harsh, in addition to the danger of breaking the bell. Therefore the
clappers must be made so that they bear a certain proportion to the bell,
and in order not to proceed by chance, I have diligently tried to find the
method as well as possible. I have found that experienced masters [99]
have given to bells weighing ten pounds a clapper of one and a half
pounds [and, to larger ones, clappers as tabulated on the next page].*
Larger numbers than these I have not found because, in truth, few ofthe
extraordinarily large ones are made in our regions. In my opinion, the
masters should not be hmited to these rules for the differences in clappers
but should proceed according to the kind ofbell, using a certain discretion
for it is not possible to give a definite rule.
* These figures are not tabulated in the original but are given directly in the text. The
clapper weight for a bell of22,000 lb. is obviously a misprint for 540 lb.
These data have been plotted in Fig. IX in the Appendix, and the curve clearly shows
that a definite relation between bell and clapper weight was obtained, perhaps uncon¬
sciously.
CHAPTER 14 HANGING BELLS 273
Weight Weight of Weight Weight of Weight Weight oj
ofBell, Clapper, ofBell, Clapper, ofBell, Clapper,
Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds
10 900 37 8000 250
20 2 1000 42, some 44 85o[o] 280
30 2}^ to 2 lb. 8 oz. 1200 46 9000 290
40 3>^ 1300 48 9500 295
50 4 1400 52 10000 305
60 4^2 1700 63 11000 315
70 5 1800 67 12000 340 to 350
80 1900 75 13000 370
100 6K 2000 80 14000 390
150 9 2500 100 15000 410
200 12 3000 125 16000 430
250 13 4000 140 to 145 17000 450
300 15 5000 160 18000 490
400 19 5500 175 20000 510
500 23 6000 190 21000 530
600 27 6500 200 22000 450*
700 30 7000 220
800 34 7500 235
* Sic. Probably in error for 540.
THE FOURTEENTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Methods ofHanging Large Bells So
that They May Move Easily When Rung. IT is not necessary to enter into a long discussion of ordinary bells,
because every master carpenter or blacksmith Icnows how to make
those levers with a crossbar that are called storks. This is nothing other
than a board that has a thick and heavy head and looks more like a dolphin
than a bird. This has a long tail in the form of a handle so that it makes a
more powerful lever. As can be seen in every bell tower and other place
where there are bells, it has, crosswise above the point where the cannon
ofthe beU is fitted and fastened in, an iron bar which is arched and which
has its two ends turned horizontally. These are made round so that they
may turn easily when they are held by two steel rings or in two metal
grooves or on glass pillows. In this, the more the transverse rod is arched.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 274
the heavier its head and the longer its tad, and the nearer to the end the
rope is attached, the more mobile it wdl be and the easier to ring.
The difficulty lies in those bells [991^] of extraordinary weight. These
often, indeed almost always, are for bell towers and inconvenient places,
so that a stork lever would be an unwieldy contrivance if one wished to
make it. Therefore it is necessary to approach it with ingenuity, and some
men, for greater compactness, have made the bell fast and caused the
clapper to move with the present method:
Figure 34. Two methods ofringing bells. At the right is the stork lever
for swinging the entire bell, and at the left the bell is
fixed and the clapper alone is moved.
There are some others who have tried to facilitate the movement ofthe
bell and have used the methods that I have drawn here below:
Figure 35. Four types ofbearmgs for hanging large bells.
CHAPTER 15 WELDING CRACKED BELLS 275
[100] Some others have with other devices put into operation one of
these;
Figure 36. Additional ways of hanging bells. The drawing at the right,
showing the design ofthe clapper and certain proportions
ofthe bell, is not referred to in the text.
Still others have put in motion only the clapper instead ofthe bell, in
order to ring it. With various devices they have caused it to strike from
one side or from both, as they wished. And since at the time ofPope Paul
[ni] I remade such a bell in order to save it at the Castel Sant’Angelo
(where bells often break from being rung continuously with hard blows)
it behooves me to give attention to many methods.*
THE FIFTEENTH CHAPTER
The Procedure and Method of Welding Cracked Bells.
A FTER the aforementioned subjects, I wish to speak to you of the
method of welding bells that are cracked. This seems to me an
^ jL ingenious thing, httle used, but of great usefulness. Bells are
cracked by the blows of too large a clapper or by excessive and forced
ringing. This often cracks them at the rim, in the heart, or in some other
place so that they lose their tone because ofthese cracks, and give no more
* This is not clear. It is possible that the cracking of the beU with moving clapper
reminded Biringuccio to speak of welding, as he does in the next chapter. Bells struck in
this way are notoriously liable to crack.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VI 276
sound when struck than certain earthen tiles. It is truly a pity to see at
times a bell that is beautiful and good—indeed perfect—made with so
much labor and expense, that must be lost because ofsuch a small thing.
Very often, ifyou propose to make it anew, you have a double loss and no
bell; indeed, their patrons frequently leave them abandoned through fear
or in consideration ofthe great expense, or because they cannot supply the
waste and reserve [of metal] and the many other things that are needed.
Figure 37. Furnace for welding cracked bells.
[lOOf] With this method ofwelding they are sure ofhaving the same beU
and of reducing the inconvenience and expense, and they can also hope
that it will return to its former perfection oftone.
Now, if you wish to do this, you are to make an exact mould of the
inside ofthe bell where it is cracked. Having made this mould as thick as
seems best to you, and having fortified it for safety with three or four
little iron rods, bake it and put it in its place inside, plastering all the edges
well with soft clay. Then fill the whole inside space ofthe bell with fine,
somewhat damp, and well-pressed earth, and lay it in a pit underground
when it has been thus prepared, leaving only the crack uncovered. Above
this arrange a sleeve that takes the flames from a little furnace and conveys
them in such a way that they strike exactly on top ofthe crack. Continue
in this way not only until they heat the bell in that place, but until they
soften it. A little vaulted space is made over the crack, with a vent in front
turned upwards for the flames to issue. When in this way the beU has been
made wliite by the fire and is ready to hquefy in that place where the
CHAPTER 15 WELDING CRACKED BELLS 277
flames strike, touch it with an iron, and if you find that the point enters
into the metal take some molten metal in a crucible or ladle and pour it
through the mouth ofthe exit for the flames ofthe sleeve. Allow the two
metals to heat up well again and unite: then when you wish slacken the
fire and gradually let it cool. When it is cold, you will find your bell
v/elded, but the place that you have welded will be somewhat tliicker be¬
cause ofthe excess metal that you put there. Take offwhat is superfluous
with chisels and finish it to a good shape. Thus you will have restored the
bell in one piece. It wiU be no different from what it would have been had
it been recast and its tone will be as good as before, as reason and experi¬
ence will show you.
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[ioi]PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH BOOK OF
PIROTECHNIA
Concerning Methods and Procedures Used
for Melting Metals.
HE second operation in the art of casting, and one of the
greatest importance, is that of melting and thoroughly
liquefying the materials of which you wish to make your
casting. On this operation depends the whole outcome of
your intentions and the perfection ofyour work. Without
it, even though you had a great abundance ofmoulds and
vast quantities of bronze, your desires, labor, and expense would all be in
vain. In this operation I find on consideration that, in addition to experi¬
ence, there are three necessities—perhaps indeed four—that must be pro¬
vided without fail.
The first is the furnace or other agent which contains the fire and the
metal brought together. The second is the wood or charcoal which is the
necessary and proper nutriment ofthe fire, from whose virtues are derived
the greater or lesser forces which, according to their kind, are ready to
effect what is required. The third is to have the materials disposed to easy
fusion by means of corruption, alloying, or by their own nature. The
fourth, as the motivating cause ofthe whole, could perhaps be listed as the
first—this is the ingenuity and good judgment of the worker, together
with the bodily exertions not only of himself but also of his helpers in
addition.
For, besides a certain ordinary caution, it is necessary to pay particular
attention, first, to see that the furnaces, machines, ladles, hearths, refin¬
eries, and other kinds of instruments or similar vessels be made so as to
dispose the metals for melting, and, when melted, that they easily main¬
tain them so. These should also be prepared in such a way that they cannot
be injured by the fire, for ifthey should be damaged the operation would
fail. In order to do this, it is first necessary that you arrange the instru¬
ments with forethought and action so that the power ofthe fire can oper¬
ate. Fire operates on things only when brought together with them in
long-continued operation, or when driven by a great force of wind. It
bums many things and softens others, but it makes the metals as liquid as
water.
28o PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn
In conclusion, it is necessary for you to understand well what you wish
to do in this operation, and for you to adapt the force to overcome the
resistance that is offered according to the qualities ofthe materials, and to
proportion it to the quantity. Then, having chosen with good judgment
the way in which you are to proceed, you will easily arrive where you in¬
tend. But because the light ofjudgment cannot come without practice,
which is the preceptress of the arts, I shall pass through this briefly with
the idea ofone day being able to supplement this further by demonstrat¬
ing it to you.
CHAPTER I REVERBERATORY FURNACES 281
[loiv] the first chapter
How Reverberatory Furnaces Are to Be Madefor Melting
Bronze and All Kinds ofMetal Having already shown you the methods of making the moulds
for casting and how they are to be prepared so that they may
receive the melted metals well, it is now necessary, in order to
complete the casting with perfection, that I show you not only the opera¬
tions and instruments by which metals are softened, but also how metals
can be made as liquid and fluid as water so they may easily enter into all
the hollows ofthe moulds that you have made. Ofthese, besides the fire
which is the prime agent, there is a very powerful furnace, which is called
a reverberator.* I beheve this is chosen not only for convenience but also
because it is necessary in large casts. This is made of baked bricks, or of
crude ones ifdesired or ofsuitable fire-resistant stones. Although aU mas¬
ters have the same objective, each one proceeds to make this kind offur¬
nace according to his own ideas so that it can be said that there are almost
as many different shapes of such furnaces as there are masters. This can
be seen in the place that contains the metal, which is ofsuch a shape that
the force ofthe fire may operate better. Thus some masters are called good
who, seeing no farther than what has been shown them, make them circu¬
lar like a bread oven. Some others make them oval across the fire en¬
trance, while others extend them lengthwise. Also, there are some who
make a single outlet for the flames, some two, and some three. Some make
the entrance for the fire high and narrow and others, wide and low. The
same is true ofthe place where the flames are generated, wEich is called the
firebox. Some put the wood in from the side, some lengthwise in the
same direction as the entrance for the flames, and some from above by
means of a little hole. Also, one makes the vault low, and another makes
it high. And while one puts an entrance for air underneath so that the
* The design ofreverberatory furnaces was evidently well advanced when Biringuccio
was writing, and it is curious that his should be the first detailed description. Earlier
drawings are known, notably some by Leonardo da Vinci. Prior to the use ofreverbera¬
tory furnaces large melts had to be made in one or more cupola-type furnaces with a
receiver below the tuyere line, such as were clearly described by Theophilus. The use of
the reverberatory furnace for roasting and smelting ores is described by Biringuccio on
pages 150-152.
282 PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn
flames may be lifted up and be more flaming and alive, another, fearing
the cold, closes and seals it up well.
But in order to avoid confusing you with such a diversity of arrange¬
ments, I shall describe here only those methods that I have used as I needed
them and tell you how to make them. In these I have not followed exactly
any one of the aforesaid shapes, but have taken from all of them the
necessary parts that seemed to be most suitable. First I decided on the fire;
then I drew on the ground the exact size ofthe inside space that I desired
and also drew around it the thickness ofthe walls. So that you may under¬
stand better, let us suppose that I needed a diameter of two and a half
hraccia. I drew a straight hne three and a half or three and two-thirds
braccia long and crossed it at the bottom [102] with a line of two-thirds
hraccio as the entrance for the flames. Then, at two hraccia I drew across it
another line two and a quarter braccia long and made it like a cross. At the
top, I drew a line ofa palmo andjoined the whole from point to point with
straight lines. At the ends ofthe longest arms ofthe cross I indicated the
windows, that is, the outlets for the flames. Then I drew the place through
which the wood for the fire is put. Likewise I indicated the thickness ofthe
X
wall that I wished to have interposed between this place and the bronze.
Then, all around outside, I also drew the full thickness that I wished the
walls to have. These I have always made one braccio or at least three￾quarters high from the bottom upwards. Following this I had the wall
bricked in and made solid from the ground to a height of one braccio,
except for the space ofthe firebox. IfI had it made hollow, I did so for less
expense and filled it with broken bricks and earth and had it pressed very
well and solid with stamps. Then, on top, I had a bed of bricks laid en¬
tirely over it, inclined a quarter ofa braccio or less toward the taphole plug
so that the bronze might not stand still when melted but would run for¬
ward. Above this bed I also had another course of bricks laid edgeways,
herringbone fashion.* For this I had not only chosen bricks that had sharp
corners but also had them dressed in order to make them fit more closely.
Then, following the design I again completed the inside spaces as I told
you and also as you will see drawn here below, so that it had almost the
shape of a lute.
Flaving made this first part, I then cut two bricks, either edgewise or
flat as worked best, and fitted in the pyramidal iron plug with the thickest
part toward the bronze so that when the bronze fiUed the furnace it
* mattoni a spino per taglio.
CHAPTER I REVERBERATORY FURNACES 283
pressed against the plug and closed it better. I have used several methods
of cutting the bricks for this and when I could I have willingly done it
with stones that resist fire.
Then [i02f] I have had the walls continued in this way, making two
sloping edges at the little windows with an opening of at least half a
braccio on the inside. When the master had made the wall a quarter of a
braccio high, I had him begin to form the arch of the vault for covering
Figure 38. The layout of the hearth and firebox of a reverberatory
furnace for melting bronze.
the furnace, and outside I had the walls made upright. At the places for the
windows I had it shaped like an embrasure, wide on the outside and nar¬
row on the inside. At this level I narrowed the wall and made it thinner by
a quarter of a braccio, but only after the place where the molten bronze
presses with its weight had been passed. Having thus made the vault and
the little arches for the windows, I continued the place where the wood is
put for making the flames. In this I first had a large pit made as deep and as
long as the whole furnace. A half braccio below the level for the entrance
ofthe fire I had a series oflittle arches which crossed over the width ofthe
pit, spaced three dita from each other, with each one a httle higher than
the next, so that from the first to the last one there should be a slope of
about a third or one braccio [5/c] or more toward the mouth where the
wood is put in. I also had the inside given a convex shape between the
two walls, and took care that the side wall should narrow gradually
toward the entrance for the flames and that the other wall opposite it
should narrow at the bottom and widen at the top. Likewise the vault is
PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn 284
narrow where it starts at the entrance for the wood and widens as it rises
up to where the fire is to enter, so that as the flames are forced in they may
go forward and, deflected by the vault and by the arrangement of the
sides, they may unitedly enter the place for the bronze.
Thus built in this shape, I have had the vault begun not only over the
firebox but also over the place for the bronze. I have taken pains to ar¬
range that the vault ofthe firebox should be somewhat lower than that of
the furnace, and that the aforesaid convex be commenced as desired from
the part of the wall where it abuts a little above the level of the arches,
curving in such a way that all the flames, beating against it, press against
the opening of the window that leads into the furnace. Likewise I have
also had the vault made low above the taphole, so that when the flames
are beaten back they may fall forcibly upon the metal.
The height from the level of the arches to that of the entrance for the
flames I have had made half a braccio, and the thickness between the wood
fire and the bronze, three-quarters. Above the arch that was left, I have
had the other vault continued to cover the furnace where the bronze is to
be. This I have had extended concave but low, so that from the lower bed
to its greatest height it is about one and a quarter hraccia or somewhat less,
in order that the flames and their heat may be kept nearer the bronze. I
have also wished that the upper vault should proceed in its slope in con¬
formation with the inclination of the bottom, so that the flames should
not stand stiU at the top but should be driven toward the taphole in order
to heat the bottom, and toward the bronze, for herein lies the importance
ofthe whole.
This done, I have had two little chimneys made in the thickness ofthe
wall above the windows that were left as outlets for the flames in order
that the bronze may be seen and handled. These chimneys have an [103]
opening of an eighth [braccio] or a httle more which will carry off the
smoke well and allow the flames to go out in order to leave a place for the
others to enter when the little door in front of the opening is closed,
as you will hear.
Now make this kind as I made it, or one ofthe others described to you,
choosing the one that pleases you most, always taking care to make the
places large where the wood is to be, so that much ofit can stand there. It
should similarly be spacious where the bronze is to be so that there may
not be much material and little fire.
Now I wish to remind you ofthree principal precautions in addition to
CHAPTER I REVERBERATORY FURNACES 285
making the furnace ofa good shape. The first is that you make the furnace
ofbricks or stones that resist the fire; ifnot the entire furnace, at least that
part exposed to the fire. I have sometimes made them with bricks and laid
them with the white clay that glassmakers use for making their pots and
furnaces. Peperino also serves very well and a black rock flecked with
white spots of talc inside, whose name I cannot tell you but it is found
in Valcamonica in the Brescian region, at Chiusdino in the Sienese dis¬
trict, I believe also at Bolseno, and I know for certain at La Tolfa in the
region ofRome, where the alum works are, for they make the furnaces for
their kettles from it.
The second precaution is that ifthe furnace is new, it must all be thor¬
oughly baked with charcoal and wood before you put in the bronze, espe¬
cially the bottom. For ifyou did not bake it it might easily happen that the
bronze would not melt and thus you would suffer loss and shame.
The third is that you take care, when the bottom is baked, to repair
any crack that might have formed in it, if only with lime and crushed
brick or with powdered glass, applying it over the whole bottom. Make
for it a plaster ofwash ashes to protect it from the flames and do the same
for the roof so that, if it is of stones, they may not burn, and if it is of
bricks they may not melt, and also so that the molten bronze may not
enter in the joints between the bricks and lift up the bottom, or, ifit does
enter, so that it may not remain there, for this could bring you nothing
but harm.
This is as much as I can tell you about reverberatory furnaces. All
large quantities are melted with these, yet it might happen that there was
so much that it would perhaps be well not to entrust it to a single furnace,
but to do as Leonardo da Vinci, the excellent sculptor, thought of doing.
He had made a great colossus of a horse for the Duke ofMilan, and when
he wished to cast it, he decided to do so with the melt from three furnaces
at one time. I have also heard that a master founder in Flanders did the
same for a bell, for he also if he wished to melt his material had to do it
with two furnaces because he did not at first succeed with one. However,
I cannot believe that one who adjusts the proportions of the fire to the
quantity of the material would not succeed in the large as well as in the
small. I do not say that I claim to know what others do not know, but ifI
had to do such a thing and wished to limit myselfto a single firebox open¬
ing, I would do so and make it so large that the flames would not be lack¬
ing. In order to do it better, however, I would make two openings so that
286 PIROTECHNIA BOOK VU
each one by itselfwould carry [103^] the flames to the place ofthe metal,
and, even though these were separate I would make it in such a way that
they would be united and become one when they were inside. For I
know that if they should meet they would strike against each other and
hinder their course of beating against the bronze, choosing each other. In
Figure 39. Plan of a reverberatory furnace with two fireboxes.
order that you may understand better what I am telling you, I will show
you drawn here below the bottom ofa furnace as I would make it ifI had
to.
I do not wish to pass on without also telling you something about those
who make their furnaces oval across the entrance ofthe fire, because, they
Figure 40. Reverberatory furnaces with oval hearths.
CHAPTER I REVERBERATORY FURNACES 287
say, they are impelled by the reason that from the entrance to the taphole
there is a certain large space through which the flames must whirl twice on
each side over the bronze before they escape through the windows, as the
drawing shows.
Those who are of the opinion that it is better to make them oval
Figure 41. A reverberatory furnace with a round hearth.
lengthwise are perhaps moved by a better reason in that they say that a
furnace ofthis shape contains a greater quantity offlames united in them¬
selves and unbroken, and that the force of the fire is where its greatest
quantity is. Moreover the bronze put in such a furnace is more easily
handled.
Figure 42. General view of a reverberatory furnace for melting bronze.
288 PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn
[104] Those who prefer the round shape adduce two very powerful
easons. One is that it has been used for such a long time and they find
that experience is of service if they wish to make it. The one reason
beyond all others is, I beheve, that in the circle all lines tend toward a
center and that the fire enclosed in that concave acts no differently than
does the sun in a concave mirror from which we see fire kindled. This
does not happen in any of the other shapes.
This is as much as I have found on the differences between furnaces.
Now, whichever ofthese you succeed in using well, the bronze that you
wish to melt is put in its place, supported a quarter of a braccio above the
bottom on pieces ofbricks or httle pieces ofbronze, put widely separated
in the furnace so that the flames may embrace all ofit. Then apply the fire
from dry wood through the firebox until it becomes well liquefied
throughout. Then, when it is well melted, remove the plug and allow the
bronze to enter the moulds through the channels. Every hollow of these
moulds is filled with it, as I shall demonstrate to you in detail with its
proper method in its own place.
[io4v] THE SECOND CHAPTER
Methods ofMelting in a Hearth and Various Other Methods of
Melting Metals with Charcoal and Bellows. Melting in a hearth and in a basket is almost the same thing;
charcoal and bellows are used for both. These are made large or
small according to the quantity that you wish to melt, and more
or less force of the bellows is apphed according to the need. The hearth,
bowl, or refinery, as the masters call it, is made with bricks and clay like a
forge; opposite the middle ofthe tuyere a round hole is made hke a wash¬
basin, wide at the mouth and narrow at the bottom where there is a hole
for emptying it. A little iron plug is put in this so that it may be closed
when necessary, or a piece ofbrick that is cut and pointed.
Now, when this has been well covered all over with ashes, and the
tuyere has been arranged so that the wind strikes the center, it is first filled
with charcoal and baked very well so that the metal may be kept hot once
it has been melted. When it has been baked, it is again filled with charcoal,
fire is apphed, and it is left to inflame gradually by itself Then put one or
CHAPTER 2 THE MELTING HEARTH 289
two pairs ofbellows in motion and, placing the material that you wish to
melt on the heap of charcoal, proceed to melt it gradually. When the
bronze has been melted, strike the plug which you put at the bottom and
send it through a channel into your moulds.
There is no difference between the basket and the hearth, pan, or bowl
described to you, except that the basket is made in a spacious open place
and is built of pieces ofwood fixed in the ground in a circular shape and
Figure 43. Melting in the basket and in the hearth, both
arranged for bottom tapping.
interwoven with branches of chesmut, willow, walnut, or the like in the
same manner as a basket or gabion is made, but as high and wide as is
thought necessary, for it can be made as large or small as you wish. Then
it is filled with clay, very well pressed and beaten in, and a hollow is dug
out in the middle as deep and wide as you think will contain the material
that you wish to melt. Having prepared the bottom and made a hole as an
exit for the bronze, and having put in the iron plug, cover it all very well
with ashes that are moistened with water in which salt has been dissolved.
Then bake it and, putting the bellows in their places where you have set
the tuyeres, proceed as you did when you melted with a hearth.
The first ofthese that I saw was in Palmero; then I saw others in many
other places, including one with which the master cast a bell of about a
thousand pounds. Certain Savoyard and French masters who travel
around casting bells make great use ofit. I have seen some ofthese that
had two or three pairs ofbellows put around them. I have also seen those
PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn 290
that [105] were made ofbrick in the shape of a httle tower instead ofwith
branches oftrees and pieces ofwood. I hke these much better than those
made ofclay, so that ifI ever had to use them, I would make them only of
brick.
THE THIRD CHAPTER
The Method ofMelting in a Ladle. The ladle is a small hearth made on a cage ofiron bars like a bird¬
cage, and has a handle so that it can easily be taken from the forge
and carried wherever desired. It is a common device and is much
used among masters for small castings, but with a large weight you would
have difficulty in lifting it by hand even though you were aided by levers
and winches. If you should indeed do it, it would be just as if you had
hfted the aforesaid hearth by force, and this would be unwise ifyou could
do anytliing less difficult.
A forge is likewise made for this, with a good pair oflarge bellows that
are well covered with cloth. When the small hearth has been made with
good clay, baked, and well covered with ashes, it is placed in front ofthe
mouth [of the bellows] and a crown of two or three brick ends is built
around it on top ofthe rim so that the charcoal may be held better and in
greater quantity. Then, having ht the fire and heated the ladle and the
charcoal, the pieces ofmaterial that you wish to melt are gradually put on
Figure 44. Melting in the ladle, with bellows.
CHAPTER 3-A MELTING IN CRUCIBLES 291
top and are allowed to fall into the receptacle when melted. Then this
ladle is taken out and carried to the place where you have put the moulds
and these are cast from it.
I have also seen melting done in an open ladle, that is, without a forge
and without any embers around it. Instead, the bare ladle stood on an iron
tripod in the middle of a room; the bellows had long tubes; and the
mouths from which the blast issued lay on the rim ofthe ladle. It is indeed
true that this ladle had a wide mouth and was higher in front than in back.
Around the rim there was an iron band a good four dita [1051;] high and
more as a retainer for the charcoal.
I have often seen silver melted in this way in quantities. It was melted
very well and cleanly, and it was handled with great ease and with a great
saving of charcoal. In case any little grain ofsilver should escape from the
ladle, the master kept a basin of water underneath so as to collect it, and
thus every smallest thing was retrieved therein.
THE THIRD CHAPTER*
The Method ofMelting in a Crucible. Melting in a crucible is the customary method for small things.
It is done in two ways: with the blast ofbellows and with an air
furnace. The one with bellows, which I wish to show you now,
is the common method most in use. It melts quickly and is very well
known to goldsmiths and to all melters. I could continue without telling
you of it, but I shall tell you its method in order to caution you about
what you might perhaps not notice.
In order to do this, first make a little forge with a pair of bellows that
can be worked with one hand or in some other way. A crucible of the
size needed is then taken and filled with the material that you wish to
melt. Then, on the forge in front ofthe place where the wind issues from
the bellows, kindle as much charcoal as you think will well cover your
crucible and put your crucible full ofmaterial in the midst ofthis burning
charcoal above the place where the blast strikes the fire, two or three dita
distant from the place where the blast issues—or as much more or less as
the size ofthe crucible or the force ofthe bellows requires. It is allowed
* There are two chapters numbered 3.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn 292
gradually to heat well. When you see that it is red-hot, the fire is quick¬
ened and increased with the blast, which is continually apphed as strongly
as necessary until it is well melted. Take care to keep the crucible always
in the middle, held upright and well covered in the charcoal. In order to
do this, some keep a [106] half circle ofsheet iron on the bed ofthe forge
and some do it with brick ends. These things are used only for holding the
charcoal, so that it may be closer together, and so that a larger quantity
Figure 45. Arrangement for melting in crucibles, with blast.
may be kept there. Finally, when the metal has been melted and cleaned of
every bit of ashes or coals it is cast in the moulds that you wish.
There are some (especially brass founders) who, for greater conven¬
ience, make a bricked space, either round or square, with a diameter of a
palnto, or as much more or less as desired. They cross it near the bottom
with two or three irons and cause the wind ofthe bellows to beat under¬
neath. This has almost the function of a httle blast furnace. Then they put
the crucible containing the material on the irons and fill and heap it up
with charcoal. Then, when it is hot, they apply the bellows and melt it.
These masters say that they have found through experience that brass re¬
tains its color better when melted in this way than in any of the others,
that it melts more quickly, and that it melts very well for anyone, without
much labor.
CHAPTER 4 THE WIND FURNACE 293
THE FOURTH CHAPTER
The Method ofMelting with a Little Wind Furnace. This method ofmelting with a little wind furnace is called by many
melting with air. It is a method that is done with httle labor. First
a furnace is made with crucibles and charcoal. It is small or large as
you wish, without blast from bellows, but not without a draft of air
which proceeds from the place where it is made and from the arrangement
ofthe furnace.* This, after a certain period oftime, has the effect ofmelt￾Figure 46. Wind furnaces for melting in crucibles by natural draft.
gin the thing in the quantity that you wish, provided, however, that you
proportion it properly to the space, to the fire, and to the air which makes
the wind.
In order to make this, the aforesaid furnace is first made of bricks, or it
is dug out ofan elevation ofstone or [1061’] in a wall of clay. It can also be
made portable with iron bars and loam as I shall tell you. However you
may make it, you must place it in a spot that is windy, for instance, in
some large room or opposite doors or windows.
It is made round or square as is most pleasing to him who is to make it.
But here we will now say that it is to be made square for greater con¬
venience ofbuilding with bricks. Having chosen the place, make it a half
* It is surprising that Biringuccio seems to be ignorant ofthe desirability of a chimney
or even ofthe necessity for height in these furnaces that depended on natural draft.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn 294
or three quarters of a braccio wide at the bottom, one and a quarter braccia
high with an opening of a third braccio or more if you wish. Level with
the ground a hole must be made a quarter braccio or more wide and a
paltno high. At the mouth a bottom is made of crossed irons as a grate,
above which is set in the middle a Uttle piece of brick cut as large as the
bottom of the crucible that is to rest on this when melting, so that it
may always stand upright and be held in the middle of the fire, even
though the charcoal should be consumed. Then fill the whole space where
the crucible is with good charcoal, after having first filled the crucible
with the material that you wish to melt. Let it stand thus until it is melted,
without ever touching anything, except to add more charcoal when that
which you have put in has been consumed. In short, this melts more or
less quickly according to the charcoal, the place where it is done, or the
convenience ofreceiving a draft ofair.
As I have said, this can also be made portable on a large iron tripod. At
the top, it is made like a basket clothed with earth, and its grate is made at
the bottom. One who wishes it to melt more quickly puts a basin ofwater
underneath. In this the burning coals that fall through the openings ofthe
grate are quenched and their heat rises up and makes an exhalation that
stirs up a wind which is very useful. This basin ofwater also serves those
who melt gold or silver, for, if by chance any grain should fall, as may
happen in stirring or putting it in, it falls into the basin of water where
it is safe and can easily be retrieved.
[107] THE FIFTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Melting ofBronze
and Other Metals in General.
As you have been able to observe, I have up to the present demon￾strated as well as I knew how in writing the art of casting and
A. Ji. the methods of making moulds and of baking them; then the
arrangements of the furnaces for melting the materials, including those
made for melting by reverberation of flames or with bellows and char¬
coal, and the hearth, basket, ladle, and other similar instruments cus¬
tomary in such operations. Now I wish to show you how to bring to their
conclusion the works for which these instruments are made, and show
CHAPTER 5 BRONZE MELTING 295
how they should be used. First I wish to tell you the method that you must
follow in reverberatory furnaces if you wish to melt well. In these, it is
not sufficient that they be perfect in shape and well made, for it is also
necessary as the sole and prime cause to have suitable wood that is young
and dry in order to have the flames efficient in this operation. It is also
necessary to have the judgment of a good master who understands well
the effects produced by the fire and to have the industrious labor of
helpers. In addition, the materials should be disposed for melting accord¬
ing to their proper nature.
First, as I said, I wish to tell you ofthe wood. This should be from trees
that are more disposed to flames than to coals, and, as I told you before, it
should be young and dry so that it may, if possible, have no superfluous
moisture. There should be prepared of this not only a sufficient quantity
but more than enough for every contingency. This should be in sticks
that are not too large. Elder and hornbeam have long been used, as well as
willow, black poplar, walnut, beech, and fir, and any other kind ofcertain
woods which are porous and light and which are commonly called soft.
Furthermore, you must have the furnace baked, prepared, and plastered
with ashes. The outlet hole must be closed with an iron plug covered with
ashes. This done, spread out your material in the furnace as directly across
the flames as possible. It should also be raised from the bottom as much as
possible, at least on a little piece ofbrick which makes a space ofan eighth
[braccio] underneath so that the flames can easily penetrate everywhere and
heat the bed of the furnace before the bronze begins to liquefy, so that,
when it falls, the bronze may find the bed hot and be kept in the condition
in which it falls. Then the two little windows with the two vents which
you left in order to observe and handle it are closed with two httle clay
doors, made on two iron frames and arranged so that they can be taken
out and put in as you wish.
Then, in the name of God, begin to apply the fire, first putting wood
near the mouth of the entrance and then gradually, as the fire increases,
proceed [lO'jv] to push it forward up to the windows through which the
flames enter the furnace. Forcing the fire with a large quantity ofwood,
increase it vigorously and take care, with the labors ofone ofyour helpers,
that this fire never slackens, but is ever continuous until your material is
not only red or white, but tips up and begins to melt. Then force the
flames with greater dihgence until you find it wholly Hquid and melted
and ready to be poured easily into your moulds.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VU 296
Be on your guard, because long and powerful fires sometimes form a
kind of skin on top which retards the fire and prevents its vigor from
penetrating. This is remedied by opening the furnace and breaking the
skin by rubbing and striking a chesmut stick over it. Do this to every
large piece that is in the furnace, so that the fire may enter more easily.
Increase it strongly and keep the furnace closed until you see that the
material is all properly melted. Then add that quantity oftin which you
think will corrupt it best. Stir it somewhat with a chestnut stick, let it rest,
and skim it by taking out with a wooden or iron rake the little pieces
of brick that you put in to hold up the bronze, as well as melted clay,
scum, or other superfluous matter contained in the materials and which
are all found floating on it. Having removed these and made the whole
bath of bronze clean, take some out with a hollow tube or with a little
ladle and make the test according to yourjudgment. Ifit seems to you that
more tin should be added, add some; otherwise, ifit seems to you ready to
cast, make it somewhat hotter and come to the act of casting.
But first take the precaution of searching throughout the furnace—in
the middle, at the plug, and at the sides—with a chestnut stick to see
whether you find anything solid that is not melted. Continually rub the
bottom, until you find that no hindrance is encountered and that the
material is entirely hquid like water or oil, spread out and clear in the
furnace, with everything that is not bronze floating and suspended on top.
When you find that it flashes like the sun, and see that the flames which
still issue are almost white and without smoke, then, ifnecessary, skim it
again with a skimmer ofdry wood, throw in some lard or other animal
fat mixed with tartar or saltpeter, or put in some ram’s horn and heat it
well. Having cleaned the channels that you made between the mould and
the furnace, strike the front part ofthe plug that shows itselfred, or rather
white, from the long fire. Do this with a long-handled bent iron made
for the purpose, which the masters call the crook. In this way send the
bronze in. Keep the said iron always in your hand, regulating the flow of
the bronze with its point placed in the hole where the plug was, allowing
the bronze to come [108] out according to the kind ofmoulds and accord¬
ing to your opinion; for discretion and Judgment, in addition to a knowl¬
edge ofmelting, are very important in this. In guns, in order to make the
moulds fiU up well and safely, a certain moderation is required on account
ofthe quantity and shape ofthe material. In bells one is not so careful, and
in statues the hole is fully opened. However, it is necessary to be careful
CHAPTER 5 BRONZE MELTING 297
regarding the amount received from the gate in all kinds of castings. It is
not possible to give a definite rule according to its shape, except to teU you
that it depends on whether your mould is made well of good clay,
whether it is thick or thin, well or poorly bound, whether your entrances
are by chance narrow or else wide, whether it has few or many vents,
whether your material is well corrupted or poorly so, and whether the
mould is baked or not. For ifit is well baked, it receives the bronze with¬
out disturbance and, ifnot, it is disturbed and splashes out. This must be
guarded against, particularly in the moulds for guns, in which the core is
struck if they are filled violently, and some part of either the core or the
mould is broken, and often in this way access is made to some part that the
masters do not wish. Thus it is well to admit it in a moderate manner in
order to give the air inside a chance to escape as well as to protect oneself
from accidents.
I also do not wish to omit reminding you when you perform this opera¬
tion of casting guns that, when your mould is so full that it almost over¬
flows, you should have some tin put in the furnace or in the channels, so
that the feeding head may be full of material which has unctuousness to
provide for the needs of the mouth, so that it may turn out sohd and
without httle holes, as it usually does ifit is lean, and for this reason they
are often unsafe as well as unsightly.
It often happens that castings are made from old copper, Hke kettles,
pitchers, cups, and similar vessels, and for less work and expense one
chooses to melt these in a reverberatory furnace. I wish to remind you
that since they are viscous and subtle materials they fall to the bottom
when hot and stick together ifthey do not find themselves in a bath. Thus
they unite with each other in such a way that the fire has no power to
affect them. Even though you find them with groping sticks as well as you
know how, ifyou allow them to unite and lump together, you would not
melt them ifyou gave them fire for a month. Therefore, when you have
to work with this, see that you have a part of the material good and
alloyed, and have this melted first; then gradually proceed by adding the
pieces of copper that you have. In case you should not have an alloyed
material and yet should need to work with this furnace, do it so that what
you first put in the furnace is but little and is widely spaced and high off
the bottom. When you see that this has fallen, give it some tin and strike
it [1081^] in order to help it melt. Then gradually add on top of this the
amount to make the total weight what you need, always putting it at the
PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn 298
mouth to heat up before you put it in the furnace on top ofthe other, so as
not to give it a chance to cool. But the right way to do this would be to
melt all the copper that you are to use with bellows and charcoal and to
alloy it, and then, when alloyed, to put it in the furnace to melt and make
your casting from that.
For melting in a hearth or basket, and also in a ladle, you first make
whichever of these vessels you like best to work with, as I have taught
you. Then it is filled with charcoal and, besides being thoroughly baked,
is heated up well before you begin to melt the material. Then the largest
pieces that you have are put around the edges in order to be heated and
also so that they may act as a retainer to prevent the charcoal from spread¬
ing. Then apply the bellows and heat the charcoal with a vigorous fire,
and proceed to put the material that you wish to melt in the midst ofthis.
As the charcoal is consumed and as the material melts, add more of each
until you have put on the whole quantity ofmaterial that you wish in the
melt, taking care that no piece falls in that is not at least ofa white color, if
not melted. For otherwise not only would it melt with great difficulty,
but also it would cause the bath to cool. Ifyour vessel is a hearth, take a
chesmut stick and free the material from charcoal, and after skimming the
slag from it replace the charcoal. If you wish some for a test, take it out
and see whether it is necessary to add an alloy of tin or brass to give it
color, and do as you think best. Then cover it again with the same and
with new charcoal and, blowing on it with bellows, heat it again well.
When it seems time to you, strike the Httle plug at the bottom and send
the bronze through a little channel into your moulds. If it is a basket,
uncover the place that was left to see and clean it; when this has been
done, do everything just as you did above for the hearth.
When the ladle has been prepared as I told you above in its place, there
is no difference between casting from it and from a hearth, except that it
is a portable instrument by virtue ofits handle and the melted material is
carried in it to the places where it was more convenient to arrange the
moulds. It is an apparatus widely used by masters, especially in melting
small quantities, since it does not entail the expense or annoyance ofmak¬
ing the chaimels and a pit for burying the moulds.
Concerning the method of melting in a crucible with either small or
large bellows, and hkewise concerning the method ofmelting with wind
furnaces, it was not possible to teach the preparation ofsuch instruments
without describing their use. Therefore I think I shall tell you no more
CHAPTER 6 BRONZE AND OTHER ALLOYS 299
since I have told you enough in their own places, but to this discussion I
shall add only some warnings. One is that in order to save the crucible,
you should protect it from the blast ofthe bellows. Another is that, in case
it is ofpoor clay and should crack before [109] you have melted, help it by
putting a piece of glass in that place; at times this is sufficient, though it is
but a fragile aid. Likewise, it sometimes happens to one who has melted
for a long time that his charcoal is lacking at the moment ofgreatest need.
I have remedied this by having certain round pieces ofwood sawed four
dita long, and have mixed them among the charcoal. Although many of
these are consumed more quickly than charcoal, they serve well in the
shortage, especially in large meltings, as experience will show you when
you need them.
THE SIXTH CHAPTER
Concerning Bronze and Mixed or
Alloyed Metals in General. I TOLD you before that four things are necessary in addition to good
judgment for one who wishes to practice the art of casting well. The
first is to make the moulds and to have the furnace well made, the
wood ofa good kind, dry and seasoned, and the material disposed to melt.
I have given you enlightenment on all these in detail, and on the last point
as well, as you can see in the discussion on the alloys of metals where,
among other things, I told you a good deal about those ofcopper. There¬
fore I wish to say but little about them in this chapter, but in order to fol¬
low the order promised you, I tell you that when you can, and ifthe labor
or expense does not displease you, you should always alloy the whole
quantity of the metals that you wish to put into one work and should
make them into cakes of one kind. For, in addition to being more con¬
veniently arranged in the furnace and more easily handled, they all melt at
one time and with much less work than they would ifthey were in pieces
ofdifferent kinds.
It is necessary to give corruption to copper, for ifyou decided to melt
fme copper by itself in a reverberatory furnace your soul would burst
before you had any honor therefrom. Then, if you wished to cast a fine
thing from it, it would not succeed because it is not fluid, on account ofits
viscosity; and if it should succeed, it would be aU full of holes, like a
300 PIROTECHNIA BOOK VU
Sponge. Therefore it is necessary to melt it first in one of the aforesaid
ways, for it needs swift and strong fires with a great violent blast and good
charcoal, and, when it has been melted, it must be accompanied with tin
or brass. Some, for less expense, put in some lead. Thus, this compound
material ofcopper with tin and brass or lead* is called bronze, and in cast¬
ing it is a material that is disposed to easy melting and is fluid. Of this,
statues are made, guns, and many other works.
Another kind of composition is made from copper, which is called
“metal”!just other is called bronze. Nor is it other than bronze, but
it changes its name into this general term in accordance with the [lopt/]
greater or lesser amount of tin that it contains. When the latter exceeds
twelve per hundred [pounds] and up to twenty-five it is called more or
less fine by the masters, and it is from this that bells are made because of
the sound. Mortars and basins are made of bronze, both because they are
thin but hard works and also because they must not impart any taste,
odor, or unpleasant green color to things, as copper does ifit is not tinned.
In short, “bronze” and “metal” are the same thing, but they are called
thus in order to distinguish the differences according to the works.
THE SEVENTH CHAPTER
The Arrangement of Various Devicesfor Adapting
Bellows to the Melting ofMetals. The bellows are important and necessary agents in most melting
processes. In addition to seeing that these have sufficient soft cloth,
extend far and wide, and are ofgood design, including good valves
and good long tubes, and that they cannot break and lose the air received,
it is very important to give attention to their installation so that they may
easily effect their purpose. Therefore I now wish to proceed by noting
some common devices for moving them, both with water and with man
power, so that you may make use ofthem as the need arises.
* materia composta di rame o stagno, d’ottone o piombo—liteTaHy “ofcopper or tin, ofbrass
or lead.”
f The use of the unquahfied term “metal” to mean specifically the copper-tin alloy
called “bell metal” in Enghsh was general in France and Italy until quite recently. Bronze
was the alloy with 12 per cent tin.
CHAPTER 7 DEVICES FOR WORKING BELLOWS 301
Although every master makes these devices according to his conven¬
ience or skill, all have the aim of making them heat or melt the desired
materials either strongly or quickly. For this, a strong and forceful blast is
sought because the fire must also be ofthis character. Since human forces
are weak in large things, one tries to invent devices by employing vari￾Figure 47. The operation of bellows by cams on a shaft driven
by an overshot water wheel.
ous levers or the aid of water. Therefore there are some who build a
large overshot wheel with a diameter of six, seven, and eight braccia
according to the location and quantity of water, and arrange it so that
its axle passes under the end of the board that is on the underside of
the bellows. Two transverse levers should be made in their places on this
Figure 48. Operation of bellows with crank and crossbar.
302 PIROTECHNIA book vii
axle, perpendicular to each other. The board on the upper side ofthe bel¬
lows should be fixed, and the lower one, since it is not held by anything,
should fall and open the bellows, spreading out enough to reach the cross¬
piece on the axle ofthe wheel. When the axle is made to turn by the force
ofwater, the transverse pieces on it Hft up the ends ofthe boards that are
Figure 49. Operation ofbellows with crank and counterweighted crossbar.
under the bellows and close them against the upper part; when they have
passed, the bellows fall again, [no] The ends of the transverse levers
should always engage the ends of the boards which project from under¬
neath the bellows, as you see here in the drawing.
Bellows are also adapted to water power in several other ways, but I
Figure 50. Bellows arranged for operation by hand.
CHAPTER 7 DEVICES FOR WORKING BELLOWS 303
wish to note two for you here so that with these, or a part ofthem, you
may be able to arrange whatever device you may need. First an overshot
wheel is made like that which I have described to you before, and at the
end of the journal on which it rests an iron crank is made, bent like the
handle ofa grindstone. This, as it goes up and down, may lower and raise
a shaft that is pivoted above the bellows. It has two arms like a cross, to
which are attached the upper boards ofthe bellows. As the wheel turns it
always holds one ofthese suspended above.
The other method is done in a way similar to the aforesaid ones by
making a wheel, with a similar crank at the end ofthe journal. Above the
bellows is pivoted a transverse beam which has a counterweight at one end
and at the other a handle that is [ i lOf] held by the bent crank. On turning,
it pulls downward and pushes upward. Thus bound in their places, one of
the bellows goes down as the counterweight rises, and the other has to rise
when it descends.
Various ways of Hfting bellows are also made with different levers
worked by man power. The most usual one is to put a pivoted cross up¬
right with a transverse piece fixed at the end ofthe axle; this extends to
the outer arm and reaches down to within one-half braccio ofthe ground.
The bellows are attached to the arms ofthis cro*ss. Thus the man, moving
a step, pushes the handle of the lever once forward and, pulling, once
backward. Thus the bellows are moved, rising when pulled and descend¬
ing when released.
Another method is also widely used because the artisan can, if he
wishes, work it himself when not striking the iron without the help of
anyone else in working his bellows. A vertical post is set between the bel¬
lows and a piece ofwood is pivoted on this with a counterweight at one
end. On the other end a rope is tied so that it reaches a long board fixed to
the ground. This extends the length of the forge, [m] and is tied in
such a way as to be slightly raised from the ground. Thus, as the man
stands and presses on this board with one foot, the rope acts like the stork
of a bell and, as it rises and falls, the bellows also come to be pulled and
released so that they make a blast and serve very well.
It is also customary, especially for master founders, to make the bellows
move by tying a piece ofrope to a scaffolding or to something else that is
above the bellows so that it comes between them. To this is tied a trans¬
verse piece of wood which such masters usually call the yoke. Standing
alternately first on one and then on the other bellows, a man causes it to
PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn 304
make a blast by bearing down on it with his weight. This is done until
the desired quantity of the material is melted.
Also, in order to make one ofthe bellows rise, a shaft is pivoted hori¬
zontally over the place where the bellows have been put. This has two
arms. When it is moved by a lever that is fixed to the underside of the
wood at the end near the outer journal and worked by one or two men
with two steps forward and two back, first one and then the other pair of
bellows is raised, as you see drawn.
[iiit^] It could be made in this way and also in many others. A large
double wheel can be made so that a man may walk inside. The outside of
Figure 52. Bellows arranged for direct operation by a man’s weight.
CHAPTER 7 DEVICES FOR WORKING BELLOWS 305
this should be made in one part only with specially made teeth or else a
sharp piece ofwood in the shape of a halfwheel* is applied so that it may
hft upward a lever that pushes against a shaft, pivoted in the middle, to
which the rings ofthe bellows are attached. As the large wheel turns, the
teeth engage the ladder on the lever and send it upwards, and, since it
Figure 53. Operation of bellows with a rocking bar.
pushes against the beam to which the bellows are attached, one of these
rises with this pushing and the other is lowered since it falls. Proceed in
this way as long as necessary.
There is an endless number ofmethods that lift, lower, and pull and all
* i.e., a cam.
Figure 54. Operation of bellows by a rack and partly toothed wheel.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn 306
could be applied to attain one ofthese results. I remember that once, when
I was thinking of these devices, I decided that whatever is done with
water could also be done, where needed, by the power ofmen. Likewise,
whatever is done with man power can also be done much more easily
with water. And I proceeded with thought to find many. [112] Among
others I constructed one in a plant in the valley of Boccheggiano. This
mechanism served four different forges in the same room with one
wheel, thus doing service for four wheels. This was a common overshot
wheel with bellows, but larger. On the shaft I had the transverse arms put
which hfted the bellows at the first forge. Then, at the head ofthe shaft by
the journal, was a bent iron like that of a wheel, which, turning as in a
wooden stamp mill, pushed a lever upwards and returned it when it came
back downwards. This pushed an arm of another shaft which reached
above the bellows and terminated at another shaft located at another forge
and, in pushing, it hfted now one and now the other arm to which the
bellows were attached. From this there likewise originated another shaft
which pushed yet another that was horizontal over another pair of bel¬
lows, and this likewise, in pushing, lifted the bellows that were attached to
the other two arms. Thus, from one apparatus to another, one shaft push¬
ing in the same way against another, they attained the result. In this way
all four worked together or one, two, or three, as the masters wished. I
beheve that it could be made with more ifthe quantity ofwater is power¬
ful enough to hft the levers that push against the shafts. This must be con¬
sidered. It is easy in regard to the arrangement, because from the first
motion it is possible to proceed to many, but what I see against this is the
difficulty of keeping it in order, since it consists of many parts. Further¬
more, so many weights have to be supported and continued with so many
forces that every time this instrument functioned completely, it made a
great noise on account ofthe impact ofthe pieces ofwood. I cannot show
you this in a drawing because it is too difficult a thing for me to draw. Let
those drawings suffice which I have shown you and which are enough to
open the way to your needs ifwords have not been sufficient to express it
to you.
CHAPTER 8 FINISHING AND MOUNTING GUNS 307
THE EIGHTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Finishing ofGuns and
the Arrangement ofGun Carriages. IT may perhaps seem to you that I have deviated from sequence by
having entered into the narration ofthis arrangement ofthe bellows,
but, although they are not furnaces or vessels for containing the
melts, they are essential agents for bringing to port the bark of your
labors.
Returning to our regular pathway, and supposing that, besides making
the moulds, you have melted and cast not only statues and bells but also
guns, it is true that a certain procedure is required in order to finish them.
For this you should have the moulds fuU, and they should have come out
very well, for in truth reason does not allow that they turn out otherwise
for one who uses precaution. [ii2y] Then you have taken your casting
from the pit and have freed it of clay. Since I have told you nothing
beyond this, do not be dismayed ifyou see the castings so rough and in a
form that scarcely shows what they really are, for I wish to open up part
of the way into the great labor offinishing them so that it may seem to
you that you have been somewhat helped by me.
Therefore, when it is a gun, first see that the iron spindle that has been
placed in the middle of the core is taken out. You can do this easily by
striking the heel ofthe core, especially ifthe spindle had first been covered
with ashes, hemp, or a little rope. Then saw offthe feeding head above the
mouth, using either a thin steel saw with tiny straight teeth that has been
tempered with oil or some other fat, or a hay sickle whose edge is gently
hit by a little hammer. Then have the clay that is attached to the curls or
other bronze parts lifted away with a chisel. Then with a scouring brush
and water uncover the emblems, coats of arms, borders, and cornices
that you made as ornaments. Striking it with a hammer, push inwards
every superfluous bit of bronze. Finally, having cleaned the bronze by
washing, scraping, and cutting away every bit of clay, strike its surfaces
gently with a large hammer and thus make it very smooth. Likewise
finish the mouth and all its cornices as exactly and completely as possible
with files and any other instrument that serves best.
Then take a long, powerful tool that has some steel on the point, made
like a chisel and somewhat bent, or with three points like the iron blade
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VU 308
of a jousting lance.* With this tool or however you wish, take out the
clay that made the space for the ball, the powder, and the fire, striking the
clay inside until it has all been extracted. Taking it out carefully, make the
gun clean. Then at the end ofthe cavity as far toward the foot as possible
make the hole for introducing the fire into the gun at the place where the
powder is. Make this with a little steel drill, a httle thinner than you wish
the hole to be, placed in a large brace with a large haft and a large head.
The point should be made like a httle chisel with its edge obtuse and level,
and it should be tempered at the beginning ofthe violet.
This is also bored in another way by putting the drill on the side ofthe
gun in a handle shaped like a silk-bobbin, arranging it with a little bow
with gut or a thin string, and resting the outer end ofthe drill in an iron
bar in which a little cavity has been punched. Carefully rotating the Httle
drill and pressing gradually with the bar as it goes deeper, bore it until you
arrive at the cored space, taking care to do it so that the drill does not
break, for often one who is careless cannot draw them out when they
break.
Ofthe two methods, that with the little bow is safest, in my opinion,
and the best among the shapes of drill is that ofthe Httle chisel because it
lifts out much more than ifit were made with a point Hke an oHve [113]
or with two cutting edges perpendicular to each other, as many cus¬
tomarily use. Above aU, take care to make the hole not only so that it
leads into the hoUow and, indeed, into the farthest end ofthe cored space,
but so that a part ofit, ifpossible, lies in the soHd part, for it suffices that it
reach only a Httle into the end. Understand that it has been observed by
experience that when the fire is appHed in this way, it acts so that the force
ofthe powder does not throw the gun backward [!]. Thus, not striking, it
does not torture either the gun or the carriage that supports it, and it
shoots more accurately.
Having brought them to this point, the guns can be called finished, if
the hoUow inside where the baU is to pass has been perfectly cleaned of
bronze or clay. But for greater caution, for the beauty and safety of the
gun, and to make sure that it achieves its purpose ofshooting with per¬
fect accuracy, gentlemen—soldiers or master gunners—began to desire
that both large and small ones should be bored, as they do in arquebuses
and iron muskets that are used for shooting by hand. By aiming with
these, they shoot not only doves but any small mark and kill any bird or
* come unferro di lanccia da giostra aminino.
CHAPTER 8 FINISHING AND MOUNTING GUNS 309
animal they wish, however small it may be. Therefore I wish to note for
you several ways that I have used in my own experience, so that if you
wish you can also make use ofthem until you find a better way than one
ofthese.
To this end I have made when I could a large double wheel so that a
man could walk inside in order to set it in motion, and when I could not
do this, I have made it with a cannon-carriage wheel. In the nave box I
fixed a piece ofwood, in the middle ofwhich I put an iron spindle with a
Figure 55. Machines for boring guns. The wheel at the left is a treadmill for
two men, and that in the background is meant to be turned by hand.
bent handle like that which turns the said iron for the wheel. I supported
the wheel on this journal and at the other end I made a good square¬
shaped socket. In the socket ofthis I fitted a thick spindle long enough to
reach the end ofthe bore ofthe gun; and at the top ofthis I had a square
piece ofsteel welded, with all its four corners true, sharp, and well tem¬
pered, so that when it is put in the mouth ofthe gun and rotated it may
make it exactly round. This is the usual method. In order to avoid the in¬
convenience given by that mass ofsteel and iron in tempering, adjusting
accurately, and sharpening, I have also made them with little bronze
castellations and then attached four steel corners so that it may be sharp.
I have also fixed the gun that I wished to bore on a board of elm, wal¬
nut, or some other wood that was flat underneath and made hke a little
cart. After I had fastened it well with iron bands or ropes, or however
seemed best to me, so that the borer should not move it while cutting, I
then placed this on the surface ofa platform made ofseveral boards whose
PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn 310
length is at least twice that ofthe gun, and I made it strong and firm. Be¬
tween the bed where the gun rests and the said surface I put three round
rollers crosswise, [iiSf] so that the gun could move easily as it was pulled.
For this I arranged a Httle windlass crosswise in front, which could pull
equally two pieces of cord attached to the edges of the bed with two
small, good iron hooks. I also arranged another Httle windlass at the back
Figure 56. Machine with two boring tools, one ofwhich is driven by gears.
in order to be able to pull it back when it runs too fast and in order to
draw out the borer and the borings.
Thus when I finished constructing this mechanism in the way described
to you, I had the pivoted wheel turned with the force of three or four
men. First I fitted the iron shaft well into the socket, either at the head or
foot, and put a bolt through a hole that passes through the middle; then,
by puUing with the windlass, I brought the mouth gradually near and by
turning I made it go all the way to the end. Thus, but repeating two or
three times, each time increasing the cut ofthe steel square a thread, ifnot
more, I have cleaned and bored it very well.
But I like to bore much better with the double wheel in which one or
two men can walk than with the cannon-carriage wheel, because it is
possible to add to its axle a toothed wheel that engages a rundle wheel
that also has another borer as an axle. By walking in the wheel it is pos¬
sible to bore two guns at the same time. This addition has a much greater
effect than the axle ofthe wheel itself. This cannot be done in the cannon
wheel because it is not possible to arrange for the men to give enough
CHAPTER 8 FINISHING AND MOUNTING GUNS 311
motion to the wheel by hand to result in such an effect, as can be seen in
the figure drawn.
[114]! have also done this operation ofboring with many other kinds of
borers ofwhich I wish to tell you so that, in case ofneed, you may not be
hmited to one method alone. In Florence I wished to have experience
with several methods and, among others, in order to bore a culverin, I
made a shaft ofdry holm-oak wood a little less thick than the cavity ofthe
Figure 57. Boring bars with three different types of cutting heads.
gun. In this, instead ofthe block ofsteel, I had eight pieces ofsharp, tem¬
pered steel fitted in perpendicular to each other and fastened with three
iron rings, one at the foot, one in the middle, and the other at the head, but
arranged in such a way that they could be put in or taken out at will. Four
of these came at the top and four lower down. This spindle served me
very well in boring this culverin.
In order to bore the Elephant in the same place, I also made in addition,
with the advice of a clever smith, a borer like those used by some master
turners and which are called French borers. These are usually like sockets
but this one was like a piece of gutter, made of tempered steel, with its
edges sharp and cutting. When it was turned with a large wheel it
cut away very well, indeed, sometimes too much rather than too little,
and it did not make the surfaces exactly true.
Furthermore, as I told you above, ifone wishes to make a steel borer for
boring cannon or double cannon, it would be very difficult to make it so
312 PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn
that it would keep an exactly square shape, be stable at the end of an iron
shaft, and have good comers. It would be difficult to make it and to heat,
temper, or sharpen it on the wheel because it is too large a mass. For this
reason it is necessary to think of an easier way. To do this, one makes a
round block ofbronze a little smaller than the diameter ofthe ball. In this
are put four or at most six grooves that are shaped at the bottom like a
swallow’s tail. Then four well-tempered and sharpened steel kmves are
fitted in these. I have said four, because four work better than a larger
number, wliich make it more difficult to work, for the more there are on
the borer, the more it sticks. This block [ii4f] is fixed in a square spindle
ofiron or wood sufficiently thick and long and is traversed by a bolt at the
top so that it cannot come out. It is turned with the leverage of a large
wheel, worked either by hand, by men who walk in or upon it, by a
horse, or by the adaptation of water. It would bore not only a gun of
the kind usual today, but also a bombard, and it entirely removes every
superfluous part or impediment to its progress that the ball might in any
way encounter inside. These are, then, the methods that I use, have used,
or have seen or heard of being used for boring guns.
Now, having made the guns, having cleansed them of clay and every
other superfluous thing, having hammered and bored them and made
their holes for introducing the fire, and having brought them to readiness
for shooting, you must prove them by shooting three shots with common
powder in order to convince and satisfy the patron who has had them
made. The last proof should be made with a quantity of powder equal
in weight to that ofthe ball. After this, nothing is lacking except to place
them in their carriages and take them into action.
I wish to explain to you in this discussion how their carriages are to be
made, so that you may also do this. I speak in opposition to certain talk by
many who say that the measurements and weights that are necessary for
these things are to be determined by discretion, ifthey are not known. If
men do not have muchjudgment and experience, or ifby chance they do
not guess well, which could happen, they always tend to make them
either large or too small. In short it is necessary that all things that depend
on one another should be suitably proportioned to each other, either by
measure or by weight, and he who wishes to give this by chance or by
choice can easily err. But the true and safer way is that which is deduced
by experience with the ratio from the thing with which you wish it to
associate. You will always find that this has in itselfits own aforesaid pro-
CHAPTER 8 FINISHING AND MOUNTING GUNS 313
portion, either a half, a third, a quarter, or some other determined fraction.
Let us return to those who make the carriages for guns and who [115]
make the beds and wheels by chance, now lower, now higher, now thin¬
ner, now thicker and more burdened with wood. These are not suited
to the weight and forces ofthe guns. In my opinion, these men flit about
like moths in the Hght, for their guns often turn out so weak that they
cannot stand up when shot, and those who wish to guard against this
make them as thick as blocks ofwood, thereby falling into another diffi¬
culty, because they make them so unwieldy that it becomes impossible to
move them on the road to the batteries and to those places where the
patrons wish to make use ofthem. Indeed, it often happens that one who
has them in this condition would be better without them, since he finds
himselfnot only hindered by them but as iffixed and tied. He would not
wish to nor should he leave them in the hands ofthe enemy, neither can
he take them with him. For these reasons, according to my opinion and
experience, all the measurements ofthe bed must be taken from the piece
itself both as to the length and thickness. Then the thickness ofthe hub is
to be taken from the diameter ofthe wheel, and likewise the felloes are to
be taken from the hub, and from the felloes the spokes which hold them
up, and similarly the axle which enters the hubs where the wheels rotate,
thus o-iving it a suitable thickness and length.
I wish first to tell you that it seems to me that four points must be con¬
sidered regarding tliis axle. The first is that it be of good well-dried and
well-seasoned wood, of a hard nature, of a thickness in proportion to the
weight that it is to bear, and oflength first in accordance with the bed,
then as much more as is necessary for the hubs and for holding the bolts
securely at the end. A space should also be made between the wheel and
the bed so that, in moving, the wheels may not tear the bed. Care must be
taken that all these lengthsjoined together do not exceed the width ofan
ordinary cart. The thickness is made to conform to the nave boxes ofthe
wheels. This axle should also be inclined up at each end so that it may
guide the wheels wider at the bottom than at the top.* Wisliing to form
this axle, proceed to work its wood as you see drawn here below.
* This is contrary to good wheelwrights’ practice for wagons and carts, for the wheel
is usually hung sloping outward at an angle equal to the “dish” ofthe wheel, so that the
lowest spoke carrying the weight is vertical. Biringuccio’s construction would, indeed,
make the gun less likely to tip over but the wheels would break easily. Contemporary
illustrations of guns seem to show neither camber nor dish.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VU 314
[i ijf] The beds ofheavy guns must be made as long as the length ofthe
gun and of wood as thick as one-third of the ball. They should be wide
enough so that the gun fits in exactly and when the trunnions are fitted it
can move easily in tilting up and down. In height they should be equal to
the notch for the piece plus the mortise for the axle, with the precaution
that after it has been cut it should not be so weakened that it does not
stand firm under the recoil when fired.
Figure 58. Wooden axle for a gun carriage.
There are many who customarily make these beds without any care,
like two flat boards, and indeed, this form is made for the very heavy
guns, or for those that are to serve to arm warships, or perhaps because of
inability to find wide enough boards, since it does not matter how those
are made that are put in ships and places where they are to stand stiU.
Now, these boards are joined with three strong transverse pieces mor¬
tised through the thickness of the wood with two tenons at each end.
They are secured from the top with a peg of holm oak or oak which
passes completely through all the mortises and reaches to the bottom.
These crosspieces should be just long enough to enable the width of the
gun to enter. Ifthere are any cornices, their shape is cut into the boards of
the bed and they are fitted in, otherwise the piece would have occasion to
jump about in too much space and would shoot obliquely if the gunner
did not take great care.
It has been observed through reason and experience that the greater the
CHAPTERS FINISHING AND MOUNTING GUNS 315
diameter ofthe carriage wheels the more easily they move, because more
oftheir circumference is raised and they sink less into the ground, but they
are weaker on account ofthe long extension ofthe spokes. Furthermore,
they should not be made so large in diameter that the gun is too high
when the axle is put on. Therefore you must consider the thickness of
your piece and the height of the beds and whether it is to be fired in a
level place. The axle should not come so high that it extends much above
the thing that you wish to hit, because in raising the gun very much at the
back the shooting is hindered and both the wheels and the bed are easily
displaced. Therefore make the diameter of the wheels seven times the
diameter ofthe thick part ofthe gun at the breech, and make the thickness
of its hub the sixth part of the rim* and its length a quarter of the di¬
ameter. In order to make these hubs better, they are usually worked on a
lathe, or by hand with compasses, for they act as center to the whole
circle. They are made thicker on the inside than on the outside because
they are to hold the nave box that is larger in relation to the largest part of
the axle. Note that the longer this hub is the more secure it makes the
carriage against upsetting, which often happens when it moves.
Each wheel is made offive or six felloes, and on each felloe two spokes
are arranged. These are first fitted in the cavity in the hub and fastened
with two transverse pegs for each one, [116] passing into the cavity ofthe
other. Then by drilling and punching straight through the felloe the
points are fitted in and, by tightening exactly and sending them through
to the end of the shoulder of the spoke with the blow of a mallet, they
form a true circle. Be careful when you put the cavities for fixing the
spokes in the hub to do it so that they throw the ends outward by at least
the thickness of the felloe, so that the wheel does not press squarely on
the spoke. This is all a result ofreason and experience, for it has been ob¬
served that when one marches with guns, some stone may be encountered
that knocks against the wheels, or the road may be found to slope very
much and the carriage be thrown on one side. Then the wheels made in
this way adapt their spokes so that they are straight and make an eflort to
hold up the weight much more powerfully than those which have vertical
spokes. For when the roads are steep and sloping and the wheels are bent,
the carriage easily turns over and the wheels break in the spokes or in the
felloes.
Then, when the beds ofthe guns and the wheels are thus prepared and
* mozziuto.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn 316
built into carriages, they are armed with iron bands, especially the
wheels. For these first make two nave boxes for each wheel, one of a
larger circumference than the other. These are fitted into the hub, the
largest on the inside and the other on the outside, and they serve to sur¬
round the axle. Also make two rings, somewhat sharp at the ends, for
each hub in order to hold it so that it will not spread out. These are well
secured and tightened on the outside.
At the rim ofthe circle are put four pieces ofiron band at least as wide
as the felloe or httle less. These are fastened with one or two rows oflarge¬
headed nails and made according to the quality of the gun and felloe. I
have said that this must be made with several pieces ofiron band and not
with one, although one would encircle all the felloes, and some beheve
this to be better. This is not so, because, if by chance you should need to
repair the carriage, either in its felloes or spokes, it can be done easily ifit
is in pieces by unnailing it only where necessary without having to umiail
the whole thing. Without doubt, if one should have to unnail it com¬
pletely instead ofrepairing it, the work would be increased by having to
adjust another part of the wheel. At each junction of the said bands a
single forked iron binding is made which grasps both and is fastened under
the felloe. For greater strength a mortise is also made on each felloe which
fits into the other and these are pegged from the outside, passing through
to the other side.
The beds are also armored with iron bands m a similar manner. First an
iron pillow is put on each one of the places where the trunnions of the
guns are, with a projection on top with a hole in it for a bolt and under¬
neath the shank of a bolt which passes through the thickness ofthe bed to
the underside. Then all the ends are enclosed up to [ii6f] the cut for the
axle, and, on top, up to above the trunnion where there is a hinge that
holds another piece ofiron band that passes over the trunnion and con¬
tinues until in line with the breech. This is fastened with four bolts which
pass through the thickness of the sides of the bed and take hold of the
parts underneath. One ofthese bolts passes through the axle. These irons
are held by the little hole in the pillow and by their washers and wedges
beaten over so that they can easily be taken out ifdesired. Then, at the tail
end of each bed a binding ofiron band is put and fastened with nails. In
the middle of the crosspiece at the foot a ring with a chain is put and a
little farther up a thick bolt is driven across the bed for attaching the
tongue which permits pulling it with oxen, buffaloes, or horses. In the flat
CHAPTERS FINISHING AND MOUNTING GUNS 317
ofthe width ofthe bed, a good iron hook is put above the axle, turned in
the direction opposite to the mouth, in order to permit the attachment of
a rope to prevent the gun from slipping downliill and also on occasion to
allow puUing it backwards in the dangerous places that are encountered on
the roads. These, as you can understand, are all the iron pieces that go into
a gun carriage ifyou wish to arm it well with iron. You must know that
httle more or less than 4,500 or 5,000 pounds ofiron are required for a
cannon.
Since the wheel bolts differ according to opinion, I wish to discuss with
you the differences among the common ones, which are of three kinds.
He who wishes to transport guns must consider whether they have to be
conveyed through mountains or over muddy, dusty, or rocky land. So
that you may avoid these inconveniences, I shall advise you ofsome ofthe
advantages that you must not fail to seek and to make use ofwith all care,
for they lend very great assistance.
Thus, in swamps and flat places, the bolts that project from the wheel
get stuck and make it hard to pull. Moreover, nails ofthe second type are
Like those that are pointed in the middle, also getting stuck and increasing
the difficulty. Therefore, for such places those are better that have flat
heads fitted with a punch into the thickness of the rim and have no
projection outside. That very wise Messer Alfonso, Duke ofFerrara, tried
this, and told me with his own mouth that a gun carriage with such
wheels needed to have a pair or two less of horses or oxen than those that
have sharp heads like the point of a diamond. It is true that the latter are
more attractive to the sight, and I believe without doubt that in moun¬
tainous and rugged places those made with diamond heads are more useful
because they better protect the iron rim and the wheel from the rocks, and
also, because these points take hold, they give the wheel a certain support
so that it cannot sHp either in descending or ascending.
Nails ofthe other kinds with round heads are made for carts for carry¬
ing [i 17] stones. They are made by chance and without care or plan by the
masters, for it is enough that they hold the thing which they nail.
After the nails come the different kinds of bindings. As I have said,
some are made forked to take hold of the backs of the ends of the iron
bands and these are fastened underneath with a bolt called ritorta* at the
place where they come together. Some people fold the bindings back on
* i.e., a rivet.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK VII 318
themselves. Some make two instead of one and put one at each end and
another in the middle of the iron band. All these things depend on the
opinions and wishes ofthe masters.
I also wish to advise you concerning the wood that you are to use for
this. Whatever kind it may be, it should be dry and seasoned, and that for
the beds, hubs, and the felloes should be elm, for the spokes and axle,
holm oak or oak. Again I tell you that it must be very well seasoned and
dry, otherwise the whole thing will come apart and be ruined in a short
time or on a short journey, and you must remake it from the beginning.
Now you must give thought to placing the piece on its carriage accord¬
ing to its weight. For this I could tell you of many types ofscrews and
lifting devices, but in case of necessity a little ladder with holes is used,
which, with the help ofan iron bolt, provides a rest for a lever. The piece
is first put in place in the bed on the ground without wheels. Next, the
axle is lifted on one side and rested on something that does not allow it to
fall back. Then the same is done on the other side, and in two or three
liftings the axle is raised high enough so that it enters one wheel. It is
placed in the other wheel in the same way. With blows and with levers it
is put in place and fastened with a bolt in the end ofthe axle.
Now, in order to move it, it remains only to arrange the tongues that
are to be attached in a manner depending on whether you wish to pull it
with men, horses, oxen, or buffaloes. If with men, a little cart with two
wheels is put underneath so that it can be kept raised from the ground.
The rope is attached to the chain that you put at the foot, and the tail of
the carriage is fastened on the little cart with a bolt. It is pulled by means
of the rope. If oxen or buffaloes are used, only one tongue is fastened to
the middle bolt, and the first yoke for the oxen is attached to the end of
the tongue and the rope continues for attaching the rest. Ifhorses are used,
two tongues are affixed, one on each side, and a horse enters between
them. Then the rope is fastened to a little hook on the tongue and passes
through the collar ofthe first horse. [This is done for horses placed either]
one by one, or two by two. In this way you can use as many as you need
so that they can pull it easily. These animals take it wherever you wish
with more swiftness and ease than any other.
Up to this point everything that could be has been said concerning the
guns themselves. Regarding the kinds of powder and the balls and how
they are used I shall speak in their proper places when I tell you how
batteries are made.
CHAPTER 9 CASTING CANNON BALLS 319
[117V] the ninth chapter
How Iron Balls Are to Be Made by Casting,for
Shooting with Large and Small Guns. IN order not to deviate from the proposed order both in speaking of
melts and of things necessary for guns, I shall tell you at present the
method by which iron balls are made. This is surely a very fme inven¬
tion and a horrible one because of its very powerful effect. It is a new
thing in warfare,* because (as far as I know) iron balls shot from guns
were never seen in Italy before those that King Charles ofFrance brought
here for the conquest ofthe Kingdom ofNaples against King Ferrandino
in the year 1495.
Now, although I spoke to you briefly ofthese when I told you above of
the purification of iron, it seems to me necessary to show you again in
more detail here how they are made. Therefore I tell you that in addition
to iron, bellows, blast furnace, and charcoal, it is necessary to have the
moulds, without which they could not be cast. At first, when this work
was begun in Italy, it was customary to make these moulds ofbronze so as
not to be obHged always to be making them of clay. Now the present
masters cast the moulds ofthe same iron in order to save expense.
Although I am aware that you should already know how to make these
from the methods ofmoulding taught you before, still I shall teU you the
method that is followed in making these, because in the practice of every
particular thing there is some divergence from the general procedure. For
these balls, first make a ball ofwood or of clay, or have one made oflead
or iron, round and of exactly the dimensions that you wish. This is if
you wish to make only one in your mould; otherwise take as many as
you wish it to contain. Bury halfofthis, or these, in a board or in clay and,
having greased them with oil or lard, make a mould over them ofplaster
of Paris, or of clay if you have no plaster, exactly as you wish it to be in
iron or bronze. Then make the other half opposite this. After having
taken out the balls make httle openings for the gates and vents and like¬
wise four holes for pegging the parts together. At the back make a stud or
* Small iron balls for muskets are much older. The larger balls for use in bombards and
guns were made ofstone partly for cheapness but also because the primitive guns were
insufficiently strong to withstand the explosion ofthe heavy charge of powder needed for
metal balls.
320 PIROTECHNIA BOOK vn
a recess to provide a hold for the tongs. When they have been made
exactly, cover them with ashes or grease them with oil, and mould them
individually with moulding clay, each half by itself. Then make their
carriages and when these have been made and baked, fill them with
bronze or molten iron, as you prefer. Thus you will have moulds for
casting balls which serve very well and in which one ball or three, five,
seven, or more ifyou wish can be arranged to be cast at one time. Always
remember to apply [ii8] some wash ashes on the inside of the moulds
when you cast.
Furthermore, arrange a large pair of tongs which have their jaws
pierced with a square hole, into which the little stem that you left at the
hack ofthe mould enters. Alternatively, the tongs are made to enter into
the grasp of the recess. Handle the moulds with these tongs as you have
occasion.
Nearby, have the iron ready for melting. See that you have some of
that crude, corrupted kind that has been sent through the furnace in order
to purify it of earthiness, or some ofthose old rusty bits ofscrap iron. Al¬
though any kind of good iron that has been purified with the force of
powerful charcoal fires and bellows serves for this purpose, it is done with
greater ease and less expense with the aforesaid. However, see that you
have as large a quantity as possible.
After this, a forge with one or two pairs of good bellows is provided
with a water wheel, or with some other easy device whereby they make a
strong blast and can continue for a long time. In front of its tuyere a
hearth is arranged made of peperino, flint, or some other stone that does
not melt. This hearth should be round in shape, one and a halfhraccia high,
and three-quarters of a braccio or whatever you wish in width. The
tuyeres should be arranged at about the middle, one somewhat higher
than the other. They should have large openings so that the blast can
come out powerfully and enter the hearth. In the bottom of the latter
make a hole for taking out the melted material in order to convey it to the
moulds.
Thus, when this has been made and plastered well and has been very
well covered with ashes and arranged throughout in the same way as the
hearth described to you before for melting bronzes, you will Ijake it.
When it has been baked and you wish to use it, fill it with chestnut char¬
coal, otherwise with hornbeam or, finally, with whatever kind you can
get. In order to raise the edge higher, also put around it some brick ends
CHAPTER 9 CASTING CANNON BALLS 321
or other stones to hold in the charcoal. Start the fire and apply the blast.
When you see that the whole quantity of charcoal is burning well, pro¬
ceed gradually to put on those pieces ofiron that you wish to melt, using a
shovel or an iron ladle, and thus proceed to melt. Take care always to
keep the material raised up in the fire with an iron rod until it has melted,
and also to keep the openings for the blast free from any earthiness that
collects there.
When you have the necessary quantity ofiron well melted and lique¬
fied, in order to proceed more easily arrange a Httle iron channel long
enough so that when the outlet ofthe hearth is opened, it leads the molten
iron to the moulds for the balls. Bring up each pair of moulds that you
have with those large tongs that I told you ofbefore and, holding them in
the stream, fill them all until the iron overflows. In this way the iron balls
that are used in guns are made.
It is indeed true that there are some who make the hearth in another
way. Others put in some antimony because they wish the iron to be more
fluid; others put in some copper, and others corrupt it with arsenic or
realgar. But in my opinion those who go beyond its natural state err be¬
cause they make it much more brittle [ii8v] than it should be.
Iron balls for muskets and arquebuses are also made with the hammer
by forming a cube ofthe desired size from a rod. This is done at an ordi¬
nary forge. Then, on a little anvil the hollow of a hemisphere is made and
a similarly hollowed chisel [i.e., punch or swage] is also made. Then the
iron is heated well and struck between the anvil and the chisel, turning it
often inside so that it becomes perfectly round. Then it is cut off and the
point where it had been attached is depressed with the same chisel. I have
seen some worked very well in this way; they are smooth and much better
than those made by casting in moulds, and, furthermore, they are not
brittle because they are made of good soft iron without the corruption of
anything malignant to its nature.
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PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH BOOK
OF THE PIROTECHNIA
Concerning the Small Art ofCasting.
PBWMiilHMl ET us return and follow our first intention ofdiscussing the
Kj fSrPlB melting. Since I have demonstrated to you how large
M works are made, you may have thought that the way to the
M ymSPjj small ones was also open to you, and you would not have
y been mistaken. But in order to avoid work and expense
sSisSlIsffl there are shorter and easier ways to be used, both because
the things can be handled more easily and because it is not necessary to
have so much regard for the forces ofsmall materials.
Therefore, wishing to make a distinction for you, I shall call this the
small art of casting. Before speaking of this, I shall tell you of several
methods of making powders for moulding. Then I shall also tell you of
the methods ofmoulding in boxes and in frames, and how the said pow¬
ders are to be prepared for casting either dry or green. Then I shall tell you
some methods that are held as secret by the masters for handling the
metals in melting and making them flow readily, so that you may easily
fill the cavities ofyour moulds.
324 PIROTECHNIA BOOK vm
THE FIRST CHAPTER
Various Methods ofMaking Powders in Which to
Cast Bronzes in the Small Art ofCasting. IN general in making such powders, all kinds of gravel, tuff, washed
river silt, and similar earths whose grain is fine and lean by nature are
good for this operation ofcasting, either by themselves or in mixture
because they are disposed to receive the metals well on account ofa certain
dryness which they possess. Many kinds are also compounded by means
ofart. Ofthese, I shall proceed to tell ofall those that experience [119] has
taught me to recognize as good. But first I desire that we return to speak
of the natural ones because they are real earths and can always be had
wherever one may be, and in the necessary quantity. They please me
greatly because they are easy to reduce on account oftheir disposition.
A loam is made from these and mixed by beating with wool-cloth cut¬
tings, spent wash ashes, and horse dung. This is made into cakes and dried.
These are then put to bake in a furnace or in some other way and, in fact,
are baked very well. Then it is pounded and sifted with a fme sieve, or it is
ground in a potter’s color mill, or by hand on a porphyry with water, to
the fineness that the craftsman desires, or as fine as he can make it.
When it has been ground it is again drained free from water and dried out
with fire. Then as much magistery ofsalt is taken as will moisten it. It is
dried and pounded again and passed through a sieve. When it has been
made as desired in this way it is moistened again before use with water,
urine, or vinegarjust enough so that it holds together when it is squeezed
in the fist. Then, when it has been brought to this point, it is moulded as
you will hear.
Powders are also made of crushed brick, tripoli, vine ashes, tries, and
glazed drainpipes, or burned emery, calcined tin, straw, and of burned
paper and horse dung as well as of young ram’s-horn ashes and many
other things. The goodness of all these depends on three things; namely,
on receiving the metal well, on being so fine as to be almost impalpable,
and on their being made with a magistery that renders them hard and
strong when they are dry.
In addition to these powders I have used another when I needed it,
and it has succeeded well every time I made it. To make this, I have taken
two parts of pumice and one ofiron scale and ground them on the por-
CHAPTER 2 THE MAGISTERY 325
phyry, or in the mill where potters grind their colors. Finally, having
added its prepared magistery ofsalt, just as I have told you, I have found it
to serve me very well, both in receiving the metal and in moulding every
smallest thing, however thin it might be. It also served me very well in
that one, two, three, or four casts were made without having to mould it
again, ifthe reliefthat was moulded was not very great.
THE SECOND CHAPTER
The Method ofPreparing the Saltfor Giving the
Magistery to the Casting Powders. Because it is necessary that the powders made for casting have a
, magistery of salt water, I wish now to teach you to prepare the
salt that must form this magistery, for without it these powders
would not have the toughness to hold themselves together when they are
dry. In short, you take the quantity [iipy] ofsalt that you need to prepare
and put it in a rough pot, either baked or, ifit suits you better, raw but
well dried. This is completely covered with a lid or is luted with well￾made moulding clay. Then it is encircled with brick ends at a distance of
three dita, like a drying furnace. This space is filled with good charcoal;
fire is applied and it is left to stand until all the charcoal is consumed by
itself* Then you take that quantity of this burned or rather melted salt
which you wish to use for moistening the clay and which you think can be
dissolved in the water so that it will remain very salty. It is boiled in a pot
with water and then left to stand. After it has settled, your powder is
moistened with it and used for moulding. When you see by testing it that
the powder stands up as you wish, it is good. Ifnot, give it some more of
this water again and continue until you see that it holds enough. For
without this magistery it would return to the dryness that it had before as
a powder, and you could not use it without fear that it would fall from the
frames. In this way this earth, either natural or artificial, is prepared and
made ready, and it is used as the need occurs.
* The purpose ofthis treatment is supposedly to give some sodium silicate by reaction
of the fused salt with the clay pot. This would make a most effective binder and at the
same time the residual unchanged salt would aid by fluxing the metal in the mould to
some extent, giving a fine impression. A similar recipe is given in the Secrets of Alexis,
but emphasis is there laid on very strongly heating the mixture, with bellows or other¬
wise.
326 PIROTECHNIA BOOK vni
THE THIRD CHAPTER
Concerning the Order and Manner ofMoulding
with Powder in Frames or Wooden Boxes
in the Small Art ofCasting. SMALL things are customarily moulded in two ways (unless they
have undercut parts which hold them in the moulds); that is in clay,
* or with natural or artificial earthem powder made in halves in
either wooden boxes or bronze frames. This also depends on whether
the object is larger or smaller.
Now ifyou wish to mould with moist clay, you must grease your relief
with oil or pig fat; apply a dusting of charcoal, ashes, or cuttlebone on it;
or gild or silver it dry with gold, silver, or tin foil. Then, first make with
moist and somewhat firm clay a plate as thick and large as can conven¬
iently hold your rehef, and carefully set the latter halfway into this and
let it dry. Then, greasing or dusting it again, make the other half. When
both are well dried, take out your relief and at the top make its gates and
vents. If plastering is needed, do it. Finally, bake the halves, fit them to¬
gether, and tie them well, as you wish, using the procedure that I taught
you in the discussion of brass.
But ifone has to make a large quantity ofworks ofone kind, he should
for the sake of convenience use the method with powder [120] because it
is short and requires less time and expense. Therefore if you wish to do
this, you need to have several pairs of bronze frames or wooden boxes,
higher than half the relief that you wish to mould, and of convenient
length. On a flat board always keep half of one of these frames full of
powder that has been sHghtly moistened for moulding, as I told you, so
that by pressing with the ends of the fingers and with the hand it holds
together as well as possible. Level it off with a cutting tool and when
leveled put a flat board over it and turn it over. Turn it on to a dusting of
ashes so that it will not stick, dust it on the other side, and remove the
excess by blowing it off. Then mould the thing that you wish to mould,
pressing it halfway in once or twice, always taking it out and putting it
back again. Then the other frame is fitted in its place and filled with earth
by pressing and squeezing it carefully. Then it is leveled offon the outside
with a sharp tool as you did with the other part, and then one ofthe parts
ofthe frames is hfted up with the point of a knife or some other tool and.
CHAPTER 4 CASTING IN GREEN SAND 327
when opened, the thing that you moulded is taken out. If this is as well
moulded as you wish, do nothing more; ifit is not, replace it.
In case some little piece should come offin hfting it out and you did not
wish to have to remove it in the bronze, put it back carefully, moistening
it somewhat with salt water, white of egg, water of gum arabic, or some
other viscous water. Then, having made the gates or vents on this, ifthey
are not arranged to be moulded at the same time as the objects, put the
moulds upright to dry near a fire. Ifthey are things that need a core inside
in order to make them hollow and light in bronze or metal, such as
pedestals, candlesticks, small or large beUs, mortars, or similar things,
make the core on a suitable iron, either using the same powder in a mould,
or forming it by hand or with a strickle board from moist clay that is
half or more ashes. Dry and bake them well and then put them in their
places in the spaces in the frames as their marks will show you. Then smoke
them well with the flame of a tallow candle or with that of a httle tur¬
pentine. Then join the frames together and press them between two flat
boards with a clamp or with a rope or in some other way so as to hold
them firmly tight. Having brought them to this point, finally cast them
in whatever metal you wish.
The same methods that I have described for the frames are also used for
large frames and boxes. In these I have seen muskets of three hundred
pounds apiece cast, large candelabra, andirons, and works of great im¬
portance. It is truly a quick and easy method.
[i2ot;] THE FOURTH CHAPTER
The Method ofMaking Powdersfor Casting Every Kind
ofMetal in Green Sand* and the
Manner ofMoulding. CONTRARY to the natural order ofart, it has been discovered how
to cast in moist earth in order to avoid labor and expense. This is
truly a thing that many desire and few practice because it is not as
smooth a way nor as easy to effect as it apparently seems.
To do this, one part offine-grained yellow tuffis taken, or some very
* Casting infrescho; i.e., undried sand. The moulding material described by Biringuccio
is not fresh argillaceous sand such as became common in the seventeenth century and is
328 PIROTECHNIA book vm
fine river gravel that has been very well washed and baked in a furnace.
Then a third part of young ram’s ashes is taken and a twelfth part ofthe
whole ofold flour that is fmely sifted. By pounding, all these are incorpo¬
rated and mixed together well. Then take urine or wine and moisten it,
and mould whatever you wish with the moistened material in frames or
wooden boxes. Having taken out your rehefs, make the gates and vents,
ifyou did not make them at the same time that you moulded the object.
Then cover them with soot as usual, with the smoke of turpentine or a
tallow candle. Then the moulds that you made are again fitted together
and are cast at your pleasure when your metal is melted.
There are some who make large and small bells, mortars, and other
works with this art. In the large bells and mortars it is necessary for those
who do not wish to make the cores ofsoft clay to make the mould in at
least three pieces as I show you drawn here. As you see, whether there are
frames or boxes, each has to have itsjoints and points that fit together and
you must consider that the under part is like a base to the whole work.
First the body is made in halves, or a third part at a time, and then the
inside is made with a part that binds and holds them all.
used today, but is a burned sand bonded with flour and moisture. Green sand was not,
however, unknown at the time. Leonardo da Vinci has a note reading, “If you wish to
make casts rapidly and simply, make them ofa box ofriver sand moistened with vinegar”
(McCurdy translation). Cellini {Traltati dell’oreficeria e della scultura, 1568) describes as
unique a kind of earth or clay from the Seine at Paris that could be used to make moulds
into which molten metal could be cast without drying.
CHAPTER 5 MOULDING RELIEFS 329
[121] THE FIFTH CHAPTER
The Methods ofMoulding Various Kinds ofReliefs. Because you cannot always proceed by the ordinary pathway
since you sometimes find yourself in a place where you cannot
have all that you might need or wish, it often happens that it is
necessary to know how to recognize and understand your materials well,
in addition to having them well disposed, and to know how to use your
ingenuity in arranging a mould. Furthermore, things have a great di¬
versity among themselves, and it is not possible to give a particular rule
for all. But ifyou have a certain broad fundamental knowledge when you
have need ofmany things, the ingenuity awakens and supplies its needs by
imitation.
Now, because I have thought that you had not hitherto had the sHghtest
shadow of knowledge ofwhat I have described in this treatise ofmine, I
have expanded and narrated things in greater detail than perhaps I might
have done. For this reason I have also decided that I wish to tell you of
several methods that can be used ifyou wish to mould, especially in mak¬
ing an intagho* for a relief,f or in making another intaglio in bronze
from either an intaglio or a relief. And I will teU how every rehefreduces
itself from convex to concave and also how the relief is made from the
intagho. These works are first made of plaster or pastes or some other
Hquid thing that is soft when moulded and becomes hard either by drying
out with heat or by shrinking with cold, such as tragacanth, plaster of
Paris, sulphur, lead, wax, or similar things. And, in conclusion, we de¬
scribe the method ofmaking an intaglio from a solid.
In making an intaglio you must first consider whether it is a large or
small thing, figure or fohage, whether it is in demi- or bas-relief, and
whether it is a thing that projects from the mould wholly or in part.
* cavo. It seems to be impossible to render this consistently by the same word or phrase
in English. Biringuccio uses it sometimesjust for depression, hollow, or cavity, sometimes
for impression, and sometimes, as in the present instance, in the very definite sense of a
casting with a design in intaglio or negative rehef. He does not anywhere use the more
customary word, intaglio. Such castings would generally be used as seals.
•}• relievi. By this word Biringuccio generally means cast plaquettes or medallions with
designs in relief. The production ofsuch objects was a very popular art at the time. Most
ofthe present chapter is concerned with the making of wax, plaster, or composition casts
ofexisting works ofart, which do not necessarily serve as patterns for casting in bronze.
330 PIROTECHNIA book vin
When you have decided how many pieces it is necessary to make, mould
it in plaster ofParis or with a mixture made offlour and plaster ofParis.
Ifit is a hard thing, mould it into a lead plate with a hammer or press. Ifit
is not a hard thing, mould it in wax and white lead, or with melted sul¬
phur, after having first greased it with oil or fat. When this mould [in¬
taglio pattern from the original rehef] has been made to your satisfaction,
mould it in powder and cast it in bronze or well-melted metal. Likewise,
when you wish to make a reheffrom an intaglio, vice versa.
Observe that where there are undercuts, when you wish to mould them
it is necessary to fill them first with clay, plaster ofParis, or wax, and then
to refit these pieces carefully together in their places in the mould when it
has been made. Cast the material that you wish over this. Ifit is plaster of
Paris, take care that it has been baked but a short time before, that it is well
sifted and mixed with tepid or cold water, so that it is softened to be hke a
sauce. Before you compound the plaster see that you have made a retainer
of clay or something else around the object. Then, when it has [i2if]
hardened well and has shrunk, take it out and replace each piece of the
mould in its own place, as I have told you. In this way you can make a
mould ofanything you wish.
Furthermore, if you should need to make a clay mould in full relief,
cover all those parts that are curved and that your judgment shows you
would not leave when the mould embraced it, and first mould only that
part which protrudes. Proceed thus, part by part, until you encompass the
whole, always having first greased your pattern with oil, pig fat, or honey
before putting on the plaster ofParis. Likewise grease all those pieces that
you do not wish to stick together, and on each piece ofthe mould make
junction points, marks, and some httle handles for holding them so as to
be able to return them to their places easily. Then having cut offthe excess
outside, and having straightened and reduced the mould well, open it and
take out your rehef. Thus you have its cavity in which you can cast at will
your wax or other liquid mixture which hardens with cold and with time.
They [moulds in full relief] can also be made of clay ifyou know how
to arrange the moulds so that you can make use ofthe halves ofthe cavi¬
ties before fitting them together. They can be made also ofplasters made
of wax and white lead, or with tragacanth softened and mixed with
burned plaster ofParis, white lead, almond charcoal, or brick dust mixed
well with a httle old flour in a bronze mortar—or with any of the said
things, taking care that they be well mixed together, for unless they are
MOULDING RELIEFS CHAPTER 5
331
well made they may not melt. Having made these moulds of wax, let
them dry and they will become hard enough so that they can be moulded
with powder when you wish.
It is also customary to make a plaster capable ofbeing worked easily by
hand in making medallion portraits, leafwork, or scenes in bas-relief so
that they can be moulded for making them in bronze ifyou wish. To do
this, take two parts ofvery pure white wax, one ofwhite lead, and a httle
goat’s tallow, and mix them aU together. Plasters are also made with
various gums, also with wax and Greek pitch or ship’s tar. They can be
made with any kind of glue or anything that hardens with heat or cold.
Once, when I did not have wax for my needs, I melted soap and moulded
with it. When I did not have plaster of Paris, I have used sulphur and
brick dust, or two parts of Grecian pitch and one of wax. With these
things I satisfied my needs just as well as with plaster of Paris, moulding
and making the pieces andjoining them together over the reliefs, whether
these were in clay, bronze, or marble. In these I have moulded in plasters
and plaster of Paris, if I had any, and also in wax that had first been
softened by hand in hot water, but not melted. By using a procedure that
I wish to teach you, it would be easy for it to succeed. This consists of
wetting [122] the object to be moulded in honey water. With this pro¬
tection to the object a wax relief that is very difficult to withdraw is
moulded with wax.
Wax is also poured into the cavity. I have never done this, but I have
been told and assured that it has been done. First, on every part of your
wax reliefthat does not protrude, lengths ofthread are glued securely or
are affixed with needles or pins or attached with wax. Thus prepared, the
object is well wetted with honey-water. Then a large vessel as high as the
thing you wish to mould is taken and filled with pure liquefied wax.* It is
allowed to stand until you see that it has passed a certain strong heat and is
about to start to congeal, whereupon the thin covering on top is broken
and the statue or object that you wish to mould is submerged all at once
and then immediately drawn out. In this way, in four or six times it is
thickened over with wax, as much as a good cord. Having done this, take
the ends of the strings that you put over it and by pulling them cut off all
the wax on top. Let it cool thoroughly by putting it in cold water so that
it may harden more. Then take piece by piece, as it is cut, and put them
* Text reads terra, earth or clay.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK vin 332
together again in their places. Fill in all the cracks and cuts made by the
threads with thin Httle pieces of cloth or with wax.
Having first wetted the inside of this mould well with the said oil, or
honey water as it is called, fill it with melted wax brought to a tempered
heat. Empty it as soon as it is full, and again fill it, so that by doing this
four or six times it becomes as thick as you wish, always keeping it in cold
water. Finally, allowing it to cool well, take it out when it is cold, and you
will find another positive made in wax exactly like the original.
I do not wish to omit telling you of another material for moulding
which I saw used in Rome by a very clever young Sienese gentleman
named Giambattista Pelori for large rounded statues. Among others were
the bronze Hercules on the Capitol, the Bacchus of. . . ,* the paws and
the body ofmarble at Santa Croce. He took mashed paper and covered it
all part by part just as masks are made, and dried it with fire. Then he
applied a paste made with flour and hide scrapings, and made a thickening
ofseveral layers, one pasted on top ofthe other. Finally he made a cover¬
ing of a linen sheet and other torn pieces oflinen cloth, and lastly, when
they were well dried and it seemed time to him, he cut all the protruding
pieces with a knife. Thus he made the mould. He later appHed wax and
Grecian pitch on this with a little brush, piece by piece, over the whole,
making a httle hard skin so as to resist all moisture. Then having joined
them together again he poured in plaster of Paris several times, and he
made all those things seem to be exactly those that he had moulded.
These moulds were made with [izzt'] little expense; they were strong and
unbreakable, light and easily carried to suitable places; surely, in my opin¬
ion, he had a fme discovery.
THE SIXTH CHAPTER
Note on Some Materials That Have the Property
ofCausing Metals to Melt and Run Well. ITis not enough to know how to melt well and to have the bellows and
charcoal for your purpose. Ifyou wish to make small castings turnout
well, on account oftheir thinness, it is necessary to aid the metals with
unctuous and corrupting materials like tin, subHmate, arsenic, or realgar,
* Lacuna in text.
CHAPTER 6 FLUXES 333
or with other materials that are less harmful (indeed that are ofa kind that
operate by way of purification) such as borax, tartar, saltpeter, as well as
sal ammoniac, prepared common salt, sal alkali, or crushed glass. As unc¬
tuous materials are used all kinds ofgum, Grecian pitch, tallow, common
oil, soft soap, ram’s-hom scrapings, and the smoke of pine resin or tur¬
pentine. These things are to be used according to the works, for if pure
metal is required as when you wish to gild copper or to hammer it, the
trace of tin cannot be observed; Hkewise pure silver or gold does not go
well with tin in any work. Therefore, on occasion, it is necessary not to be
limited to one agent alone, but to make use ofthem all according to the
kinds ofmetal, as the indications ofthe operation will make clear to you.
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PREFACE TO THE NINTH BOOK
Concerning the Procedure of Various Operations ofFire.
ffinppjpnj HAVE hitherto shown you as well as I knew how the pro￾Lfin cedure for those operations which are needed in melting on
^ large or small scale, as you might need them. Now I
Kira WwM wish to pass on to some other operations which, while re￾lated to the operations and power offires and also to certain
-kinds ofmelting, are not wholly connected with the art of
casting. First I wish to begin with the actual substance of the art of al¬
chemy, which is sought and desired with so much zeal. Then, as a useful
and ingenious thing, I wish to inform you of the art of distilHng, and,
afterwards, how you should operate a mint in an orderly fashion and
without burden on the conscience. Then I shall tell you ofthe ironworker,
the goldsmith, the coppersmith, and some others, as you will be able to
see in their places.
336 PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX
[123] THE FIRST CHAPTER
Concerning the Art ofAlchemy in General. SINCE I have mentioned the art of alchemy in many parts of this
treatise of mine, especially when I came to the description of the
practice of various operations,* I do not here intend to argue as to
whether it may be called true or not. But in case it is true, inasmuch as it is
seen in operation to be a result dependent on the actions and virtues of
fires, I should not pass by in silence without speaking at all of this art
here, nor would I wish to do so, especially since I think; that you do not
really know what it is except in so far as common report is heard every¬
where to the effect that whoever carries it to completion makes silver and
gold with it. Because ofthis belief, many seek it with much time, labor,
and expense, as I know you have often heard related, ifnot elsewhere, by
me in the chapter on gold that I have written in this volume.
Now do not think that I wish to teach you this art here, for I am one of
those who do not know it. Therefore I shall teU you here, so that you may
know more, only that those workers who so eagerly follow after and seek
it proceed byjust two pathways. One is that which takes its enhghtenment
from the words ofthe wise philosophers, by means ofwhich they think to
attain it. This they call the just, holy, and good way, and they say that in
this they are but imitators and assistants of Nature, indeed, manipulators
and true physicians of mineral bodies, purging them ofsuperfluities and
assisting them by augmenting their virtue and freeing them from their de¬
fects. In this way they sometimes proceed to corrupt these bodies m order
to be able to separate the elements they contain so as to reduce them, if
possible, to their primary materials, as they call them, or sometimes they
convert them into new substances by means of this art or by adding an¬
other spirit different from the first one. Thus they seek in this way to bring
these materials to a certain point of corruption or to a separation of ele¬
ments, or to remove or add spirits to things, or to make coarse materials
subtle and sometimes to make subtle materials coarse. Therefore, as you
can understand, these persons, with bridle broken, run a circular track
night and day, without ever having rest; and surely I do not know whether
anyone has ever arrived at the desired goal.
Nevertheless, even though the goal ofthis art were emptiness, as many
* See in particular pages 35 to 43.
CHAPTER I THE ART OF ALCHEMY 337
believe, it is indeed so ingenious a thing and one so delightful to students
of natural things that they cannot forgo the expenditure of all possible
time, labor, or expense. Besides the sweetness offered by the hope of one
day possessing the rich goal that this art promises so Hberally, it is surely
[i23f] a fine occupation, since in addition to being very useful to human
need and convenience, it gives birth every day to new and splendid effects
such as the extraction of medicinal substances, colors, and perfumes, and
an infinite number of compositions ofthings. It is known that many arts
have issued solely from it; indeed, without it or its means it would have
been impossible for them ever to have been discovered by man except
through divine revelation.
Thus, in short, it can be said in conclusion that this art is the origin and
foundation of many other arts, wherefore it should be held in reverence
and practiced. But he who practices it must be ignorant neither of cause
nor of natural effects, and not too poor to support the expense. Neither
should he do it from avarice, but only in order to enjoy the fine fruits of
its effects and the knowledge ofthem, and that pleasing novelty which it
shows to the experimenter in operation.
The other path is very distant from this one, yet seems to have been
born from it. Though it is sister or illegitimate daughter to it, it is
called sophistic, violent, and unnatural. Usually only criminals and prac￾ticers of fraud exercise it. It is an art founded only on appearance and
show, one which corrupts the substances of metaUic bodies with various
poisonous mixtures and transforms them so greatly that it easily makes
them appear at first sight to be what they are not. It often has the power
ofdeceiving the judgment as well as the eye so that it appears beautiful to
the one who has performed it, but later it is so much the more displeasing
both to him and to all others when they see that its vestments fall and,
when it stands revealed, they understand that it contains only vice, fraud,
loss, fear, and shameful infamy. Thus, since its result is mean and poor,
this art is followed only by persons of a like nature. With all this, it is not
that it lacks a certain kind of philosophic and ingenious technique in
regard to proportioning the materials by weight and measure, so that they
may correspond to the effects that it is desired to attain. Nevertheless,
because its goal is ultimately harmful, not only to others but also to
him who practices it, its whole nurture is, in a word, of evil intent,
whence it comes to be an infamous and blameworthy art; likewise be¬
cause of its wretched goal it is as foul as the first art is honorable and
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 338
praiseworthy. Because the multitude would abhor and despise them, good
and clever men cannot practice it.
But setting this aside, whichever branch you may wish to follow, ifyou
do not wish to lose all your time and expense, it is necessary that you have
a knowledge ofthe nature of metals, ofsimple and compound materials,
and of the results that they can effect and produce with larger or smaller
number of [elemental] qualities. It is necessary also to know how to
administer the fires, make furnaces, and prepare vessels according to the
effects that are sought after.
In my opinion, these effects produce naught but resemblances, such as
that of brass to gold, glass to crystal, and enamels to gems. It is believed
for many obvious reasons that the search for this art was not in the
thoughts [124] of those ingenious and very wise ancients as it is today
among the moderns, since no ancient writer ofhistory, whether in Greek,
Latin, or other tongue, is to be found ever to have mentioned it. Nor yet
does any one of those famous and great philosophers, such as Aristotle,
Plato, or the like, speak of this thing, although as is seen they sought to
find all knowable things and have written widely of them in order to
aid and give knowledge to men. To this, modern alchemists reply that it
does not matter, because it is possible that something has been discovered
about things unknown to the ancients, and that it is still possible to find
some things that, up to now, not only do not exist but do not cast even
a shadow offuture existence.
THE SECOND CHAPTER
Concerning the Art ofDistilling in General; the Methods
ofExtracting Waters and Oils and ofMaking Sublimates. IT is necessary that all men who wish to bring things to a certain end
should think ofthe agents needed to attain this. Now whichever one
of the above processes you wish to use you must consider the nature
ofthe material and see whether it is disposed to render what you wish to
extract. Then you must see whether you have the other agents sufficiently
powerful and proportioned to attain this result, for ifthe things were not
in harmony your work would be vain and very laborious.
Therefore, ifyou should wish to make waters or oils by way ofdistilla-
CHAPTER 2 DISTILLATION AND SUBLIMATION 339
tion and should employ apparatus adapted to other processes and not
exactly fitting for these, when you thought you were doing one thing you
would do another, even though the material were disposed for what you
wish. Thus likewise, ifyou should attach a hundred levers and should have
powerful apparatus, you would do nothing ifyou did not have the nature
ofthe material disposed, because it is not possible to extract a thing where
it does not exist and therefore it is necessary to apply oneselfto well-dis¬
posed and possible things. Since everything that is found created under
the heavens is nothing but elemental substance or composed thereof, it is
always possible to think that water and air can be extracted from the
wateriness or airiness that it contains, and from the fieriness, oil, and a
certain power, almost animate, which they call spirit; and that part of
these things that remains coarse and arid in the bottom of the vessels is
surely recognized to be earth. But in fact these things are indeed extracted
in a smaller quantity and with greater difficulty from one thing than from
another. This may happen through a defect in the thing or through a
defect in the art, or from the lack ofprudence ofthe [1241'] craftsman, but
after all it seems to me that if anyone wished to extract water or oil from
some things or to sublime them, he would seek the impossible—for
example, lime, glass, gold, silver, copper, and among stones, the pumice,
and among plants, the bark ofthe cork tree, and similar things. However,
my opinion would defer to the facts, for I think that, having seen how
great is the power ofthe man’s ingenuity, this also may perhaps be granted
to him. But in considering it, it is evident that there are also things, like the
very moist and watery ones, that give water easily and oil with difficulty,
and some others (like the minerals, gums, bones, barks, rocks, and similar
things) that are more disposed to a certain aridness, and from these it is
easy to extract oil and difficult to extract water. The same happens in
subhmations.
In short, these effects are all practices arising from alchemistic founda¬
tions, through which one and another experimenter usually proceeds, and
without them their art would be quite without any hope. However, if
nothing else is obtained, there remains this common and universal benefit
ofthe waters and medicinal oils for preserving the Hfe ofmen, and some
things, hke perfumes, which are a deHght.
Subhmations are pecuHar to the alchemists. With these they say that
they render materials subtle and make substances friendly to each other,
and by imitating the arrangement of primary materials they bring them
340 PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX
to a perfect union, making them permanent, very powerful, and pene¬
trating. If you should repeat the discourses of these alchemists and their
disagreements on this subject, you would sail over the ocean to the path¬
way ofthe sky without rest and without ever fmding port. But because I
wish that you should not believe me to be an alchemist, nor yet wholly
opposed to them, I shall leave offspeaking further ofthem here, especially
because I wish to foUow the practice of our operations.
Concerning these, I tell you that having the things disposed is not
enough, for the agents also make them vary, because they often extract oil
where by the way ofdistillation water is wont to issue forth, and in place
ofwater, oil. The instruments and arrangement ofthe fires do this, and for
this reason vessels of various shapes are prepared, either of glass or clay.
Likewise the furnaces for heating or inflaming the things are made more
or less powerful according to the effects or to the resistance ofthe mate¬
rials. For if the latter are not wholly disposed by their nature, you must
proceed to dispose them with calcinations or putrefactions and sometimes
by accompanying them with other things. Thus, with judgment and a
certain ingenuity, the experienced worker is able to separate and extract
from things what they contain ofthe elements, and almost to do whatever
he imagines he wishes.
But from those simple things that are disposed to give water, as are
herb roots, leaves, fruits, and flowers, and similar things which have a
certain moistness that makes them tender and soft, water is extracted
without much difficulty of art. This is because they contain certain
phlegmatic, subtle, and volatile substances which rise with the slightest
heat offire [125] and make a thick cloudy air in the vessel, and this air is
easily converted into water because ofthe multiphcation ofthe thing and
the coolness ofthe exterior arrangement which cools the head. When all
that is desired has issued forth, that which remains is called the feces. Ifone
wishes, a second hquor is extracted from this that is called oil. This is
nothing other than that part which has more air mixed with the fiery
element, and also the spirits that are its very essence. It is not necessary to
speak further ofthe prime earthy part ofthese, since it remains dead and
like ashes, almost without soul. To obtain this result, it is necessary to use a
httle more than customary art.
By means of the art of distillation many say that you proceed from
element to element, making them subtle and separating them so that at
the end the materials are reduced to such a point that they no longer have
CHAPTER 2 DISTILLATION AND SUBLIMATION 341
a resemblance to any ofthe substances ofthe four elements, and then they
say that they have reduced them to one which they call the Quintessence.
They say that this has a divine power both in increasing and in preserving
things and that it is ofpermanent and incorruptible virtue.
Now since one proceeds in detail in these effects, I shall demonstrate
them to you with as much ingenuity as I know how, and especially
because it is that thing in which the experimental philosophers implant
themselves and for which they endure every labor in order to bring their
glorious Stone to perfection. Those who write or speak on this art, even
though they speak in metaphors and veiled phrases, always have this in
mind because it is the agent by which they dispose metals to acquire
vegetability, transforming them into its very nature. They also say that
they cause gold dissolved in this substance to become a vital substance,
which is often ofsuch nutritive value that it almost returns human bodies
to life when they are so weakened by powerful and mahgnant diseases
or by great old age that they are left for dead.
Now leaving the discussion ofthis Essence, they also say that the gold
or silver, changed to this divine and heavenly liquor, is that true and
natural seed which produces gold and silver and every other metal at wiU.
Among them, there are also some who are ofthe opinion that this seed is
the original part of all things. On this basis, I have seen many alchemists
proceed to take many things as their principals and then after their cal¬
cinations, solutions, putrefactions, and subhmations they caU them their
Mercury, and sometimes their Sulphur in accordance with certain effec¬
tive ends to which they are brought. With this they seek here and there,
trying with thought to make this Stone of theirs until the cucurbit con¬
taining it is broken or all their substance goes offin smoke from too great
a fire, and instead ofmultiplying their gold or silver they lose what they
had invested in labor and expense, and nothing remains to them except
the hope of doing it again.
But since I have told you so much of these things that I have perhaps
wearied you, unless I should tell you [1251^] how these processes are
carried out, you would say, if nothing more, that the title ofthe present
chapter is vain. Therefore, turning back, I wish you to imagine that you
are at the first step, where I may tell you the common methods by which
water is easily extracted from many things by distillation.
For this, various apparatus are made and among others one that is
called the bell, from which its name comes through a certain resemblance
342 PIROTECHNIA book ix
in shape. Both the shell underneath, where the material is kept, and the
cover on top are made oflead, glazed earthenware, or tinned copper. It is
a very well-known apparatus that is used not only by apothecaries for
drawing out salubrious waters for restoring health to men, but also by
women for making their salves and paints. All those who have things of
great moismess and a quantity of material to be distilled make use ofit.
The shape ofits cover is wide at the bottom, and it has a circular hollow
Figure 6o. Metal distilling bells and their furnaces.
retainer like a little channel attached all around the inside. This collects all
the moisture that the smoke breathes up into the air of the bell because of
the heat of the fire and that runs down here from the dome ofthe cover
when it is converted into water. This retainer carries it out through the
conjoined alembic, which is sufficiently long and hollow to carry the
water easily to the mouth ofthe receiver. In order that it may not breathe
out it is fitted as exactly as possible, with itsjoints, parts, and rims matched
in conformation with the mouth ofthe shell that is to contain the material.
A furnace is made for one ofthese (ifyou wish to use only one, ifnot,
for more), either round, square, or oblong and with its vents. It is covered
on top and a bed is made of tile or something else that resists fire and
forms the bottom. It should also be strong enough to support the weight,
and ofa round shape somewhat larger than the circumference ofthe bot¬
tom ofthe shell. Above this two thick dita ofsifted ashes or washed river
sand are put. It is leveled on top and the bottom ofthe bell is put there in
such a way that it leans rather more toward the outlet ofthe water than
CHAPTER 2 DISTILLATION AND SUBLIMATION 343
elsewhere. Likewise fill in with ashes or sand around the rims between the
bottom and the shell, so that it may be firm when the bell is handled and
the heat may be uniform throughout. Having done this and having put
the material that you wish to distill in the shell, and having covered it
with its cover and attached the receiver to the alembic, apply a temperate
fire, because heat given over a period of time serves better in forming
water than when great and violent quantities are used in order to do it
Figure 61. Cucurbits, alembics, and receivers arranged in
the furnace for distillation.
quickly. One fire burns the materials and the other disposes them. If in¬
deed violent fires do form waters, they make them in small quantities,
smoky, of an unpleasant odor and bitter taste; moreover, there is danger
of ruining the bell. In this way water is extracted from many kinds of
things by means ofthis apparatus.
[126] Other methods of distilling for the purpose of extracting waters
from drier and more resistant things are carried out by the use of cucur¬
bits of glass, clay, or tinned copper. Some ofthese have wide mouths and
are shaped like urinals, indeed they are called urinals by the distillers be¬
cause oftheir resemblance to them. On top ofthem all, glass alembics are
put whose arrangement it appears to be superfluous to repeat here since I
taught it to you in the chapter on parting acids. I also told you at length
the method ofluting them. Here I tell you that it is necessary to do this or
not, depending on the fire that you wish to apply, or on the needs ofthe
things you have put in the body, or on the arrangement ofyour furnaces.
For ordinary things it is customary to put earthenware covers and ashes as
344 PIROTECHNIA book ix
a bottom, and for those that need a greater power offire, luted cucurbits
are put directly on the force of the flames “with a bare behind as it is
called when a cover ofearthenware or ashes is not interposed between the
fire and the cucurbit.
[i26y] All distillations ofthings are done in one oftwo ways, and each
way is customarily carried out with divers means according to the in¬
genuity andjudgment ofthe masters. The one very commonly used is that
Figure 62. Distillation with a cucurbit and alembic in a water bath.
with heat and dryness, of which I have previously said enough, and the
other is that with heat and moisture. In each ofthese one proceeds in three
degrees, of which the first is the slow forces, the next is the immoderate
increase, and the third is wholly violent. The way with heat and moisture
is that which is done with a water bath, putting one or more cucurbits
with their alembics in a kettle of boiling water or some other vessel
adapted to this purpose.
There are some who need to distill quantities of materials in this way
and, if they wish to use single kettles, they must have many kettles and
many furnaces, and so increase the expense. Therefore, they have found a
way ofmaking a large wooden vat on a staging in a room. In the bottom
ofthis vat, extending toward the mouth, there should be a copper vessel
shaped like a large tube, with a bottom ofits own, and it should be per¬
forated all over. The same tube extends below the bottom of this vat so
that, when bricked in, it forms the body ofthe space of the furnace and
passes into the bottom of the copper vessel that is fitted into the vat.
CHAPTER 2 DISTILLATION AND SUBLIMATION 345
The latter is filled with water, fire is apphed to the furnace, and the water
is very well heated in this way. Then the full cucurbits are arranged all
around it, with their alembics and receivers, and the water is made to boil
until all your materials are distilled.
[127] The alchemists also make another apparatus for distilling, which
they call slow distillation. This is neither a water bath nor wholly a putre￾Figure 63. Large water bath for heating several cucurbits simultaneously.
fier, and it can be done with many cucurbits. The heat for this is from
horse dung, increased by the fume from boiling water sent there through
a perforated copper tube, as you wiU hear. I have seen two kinds ofthese
apparatus. One is almost like the one drawn here above, but it has this
difference, that the hollow copper is without a bottom and without holes,
and it is narrowed somewhat only at the top where the flames issue after
passing through this copper tube and heating the water so that it bods.
The other method is done with a wooden box, about six braccia long
and wide enough to contain the bodies ofthe cucurbits conveniently. The
space within this tube is almost filled with dry dung mixed with chopped
straw, and it rests on a trestle. The cucurbits are arranged on both sides
with their receivers next to them. In the middle, across the whole length,
is placed a tube of copper, lead, or wood finely perforated with many
small holes. This issues from a kettle-shaped copper or earthenware vessel
346 PIROTECHNIA book ix
with a necklike cover. In this vessel there is water, and when it is arranged
to make it bod with a furnace or over a tripod, the fumes from the boiling
rise through the tube, and through all the holes there issues a moist heat
which heats strongly through the medium ofthe dung.
Thus all those cucurbits that were put in are allowed to distill in good
order and very gradually. It is to be noted that the tube ofthis apparatus is
double; between one wall and the other water is put, and between the
Figure 64.* Multiple distillation by the heat of putrefying
manure, aided by steam.
Other and the wall ofthe vat it is fdled with dung in which the cucurbits
are placed.
[i27f] In order to putrefy and distill things at the same time, some men
customarily make a hole in the ground, or they take a large washtub or
other vessel and make a layer of quicklime half a palmo thick in the bot¬
tom and fill all the rest ofthe space with warm horse dung. In the middle
ofthe said dung they place the cucurbit with its alembic, and the materials
distill when warmed with such heat. In case this does not heat strongly
enough, it is moistened once or twice with boiling water, and thus aided
it takes strength and does its work.
In the same way, the cucurbit in a little vat or similar wooden or
earthen vessel is covered with finely chopped moistened straw pressed in
tightly around the cucurbit as in making white lead. It is left to heat by
itself, and when it is heated it distills everything. You can also distill by
putting the cucurbits in warm pressed grape pulp and, in short, you can
* In theYale copy ofthe i540editiona second imprint ofFig. 61 appears in place ofthis.
CHAPTER 2 DISTILLATION AND SUBLIMATION 347
distill in all those things that heat by themselves or by something applied
that maintains heat.
Some things can be distilled in the dog days or other hot weather by
putting the cucurbits in the rays of the sun, or opposite a large concave
mirror that reflects the power of the rays that it takes from the sun into
the cucurbit containing your materials.
To conclude at last, these methods of distilling and extracting waters
are varied according to the wishes that come to the minds ofthe workers.
But in my opinion the true way is to adapt the fires well, with which you
can do whatever pleases you when you wish, without the necessity ofso
much cooperating equipment. For this reason it would perhaps be neces¬
sary that I tell you here ofthe shapes and kinds ofthe furnaces, but I have
decided to tell you ofthem farther on and here, in order not to break the
discourse on distillation, I will tell you in detail the methods that are used
for making aqua vitae. Many call this water oflife in order to exalt it, but
they also say that for him who does not know how to make it, it should be
called water of death. This is that substance and that agent which the
alchemists bring to such subtlety that they call it the Quintessence and
they credit it with so many virtues and powers [128] that the heavens
could scarcely perform more. It is indeed true that he who considers it
well will see great and laudable effects. In addition to some experiences, I
remember having seen a treatise on this in which an experimenter had
noted more than two hundred experimental effects. But ifit is true, as the
alchemists say, that this power alone makes metals grow and revives half¬
dead bodies, all the other things that they say ofit must also be believed.
It is certainly evident that it is one ofthe things that are very preservative
against putrefaction and is beneficial to many cold and moist sicknesses.
The quality of this is subtle, fiery, and penetrating and these subtle in¬
vestigators believe that it extracts the virtues from everything that is put
into it and converts them into its own subtle and penetrating nature. In
short, they say so many things about it that it would be too long a subject
ifI should now wish to relate it to you.
This water is made of the best and strongest red or white wines ifyou
wish it to turn out well, but the best of all are the white ones. Because this
process ofmaking aqua vitae has a certain power ofelevating many coarse
spirits, it is necessary to moderate them by virtue ofthe apparatus, and to
make them subtle by causing them to pass through long, narrow, and
tortuous passageways, not only through various coolers, but also in a
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 348
place where cold water has a proper power so that no coarseness or vis¬
cosity may be carried with it to the place where the alembic is. Although
different apparatus are invented for this every day, the best of all that I
have seen is this one that I show you drawn here. This is a vessel oftinned
copper from which a long tube with several chambers extends from
where the wine is put. At the end ofthis, at four or six braccia, is a little vat
either of copper or wood in the middle of which stands this tube with
Figure 65. Distillation of alcohol in a bell with a worm condenser
and with a rectifying column.
several snakelike bends. It comes out above and its end enters a glass hood
from which the aqua vitae comes and passes into the receiver. Now this
vessel is placed in a little furnace and is filled with wine through a tube
attached on one of the sides opposite to the tube made like a spigot.*
When this is opened after the distillation, the bottom of the vessel is
cleaned of earthy superfluities. Cold water is then poured in the little vat,
where the said bent tube commonly called the worm is found; the receiver
is attached to the alembic, and then fire is slowly applied to the vessel
where the wme is.
[izSt'] There are some who make the said water more simply, begin¬
ning it in a vessel similar to a tinned copper bell with a bottom deeper
than is usual in the others. On its beak is attached the so-called worm tube
which passes through a water cooler, and the receiver is put at the exit of
the tube. But the water made in this way does not have the perfection of
* cama scicia.
CHAPTER 2 DISTILLATION AND SUBLIMATION 349
the other, because it is not as subtle, and ifyou wish to use it for penetrat¬
ing something, it is necessary to make it more subtle with the pelican or
other apparatus for passing over by distilling. Nor are these anxious
seekers after things content to have either the one made in this way or any
ofthe others, for they put it again in other vessels for circulation and dis¬
till it again, indeed, they redistill it so many times that it is reduced almost
to the subtlety ofsmoke, so that when the vessel containing it is opened it
Figure 66. Pelicans and other vessels for reflux distillation.*
goes away in the air, or when some ofit is tossed up it does not reach the
ground because it is consumed by the air. In order that you may see some
ofthe shapes of the vessels that are used, I shall give you a suggestion of
them here in drawing. Although there are many shapes that you too may
use as the need occurs, I cannot tell you of more than those that [129] I
have seen the alchemists ordinarily use or that are drawn for their proc¬
esses in their books.
After the extraction of the waters there follows the extraction of the
oils from the materials themselves; that is, certain unctuous liquors that
are extracted from the substances ofnaturally unctuous things like gums,
woods, fruits, and semiminerals, and perhaps some of the rocks, all of
which are things that seem intrinsically to possess a certain part of dryness
instead ofmoistness. Now, in order to make oils from these it is necessary,
in addition to disposing the materials with putrefactions, triturations, or
* This figure is not reproduced in the 1550, 1559, and 1678 editions, which carry a
duplicate ofFig. 62 instead.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 350
calcinations, or by accompanying them with other things, to proceed with
the arrangement of the apparatus that constitutes the means and the
appropriate fires. In short, there are many things from which oil can be
extracted and there are also many methods of extractmg it. The usual
ways are by exhalation (by which waters are also made), not only with
the force ofthe fire but with other appropriate apparatus. The most com¬
mon among these are cucurbits that have bent necks and the rest shaped
like the sack of a bagpipe, with the neck turned downwards rather than
level.* These are luted not only on their bodies, but also up to the bend
that the necks make. When thus prepared and when they contain the
materials from which you wish to draw the oil, they are put on a rever¬
beratory furnace, "j* This is round or square as you wish, but take care that
it is neither too high nor too wide and that it is made so that it has two
irons at about the middle on which the bottom ofyour bent cucurbit may
rest. The neck projects out from the furnace and it is bricked in. The
whole space is covered on top with a tile or with laid bricks, leaving two
vents in the corners as escapes for the smoke and flames. Having prepared
the furnace in this way, the little furnace is first dried out slowly with a
charcoal fire through the hole left underneath, and all the moisture that is
in it and in the materials inside the cucurbit is evaporated. Then the fire is
increased very gradually, by putting in dry wood and causing the flames
to beat on the middle ofthe body ofthe cucurbit. Continue for eight or
ten hours, or as long as you see a thick smoke, black or some other color,
rise through the transparent glass neck ofthe cucurbit, for this is the thing
that later becomes an unctuous liquor which the speculators call oil. Col¬
lect all of this very well with your receiver, and thus you will find it in
the bottom at the end. This liquor is extracted in this way from many
things, among others from semiminerals, and especially from vitriol,
which is called by the alchemists a material of mineral quintessence. Be¬
cause ofits nature, this is hotter and more corrosive than any ofthe others,
and has the reputation of possessing several virtues of benefit to many
human infirmities.
[i29f] In this way elaterin is made and that oil which is extracted from
all gums and honey, and from turpentine, wax, butter, and all other
similar things. However, since these are materials that swell up with the
fire, they must be accompanied with brick dust, broken pieces ofmortar,
* i.e., a retort. Biringuccio uses the modern word storta on page 438.
f The term “reverberatory” was applied to any furnace heated directly with flames.
CHAPTER 2 DISTILLATION AND SUBLIMATION 351
river sand, fine pebbles, or ashes, so that when they swell with the heat
they may not rise and issue from the beak. Finally, having extracted the
moisture as usual and increased the fire, oil can be made from it.
There are some other things with which it is necessary to proceed in
different ways when it is wished to extract oil, as in making oil of anti¬
mony or ofiron, which the alchemists use for false dyes. It is first neces￾Figure 67. Retort and furnace for the distillation ofoils.
sary to calcine these and, when they are calcined, to extract their oily sub¬
stance by means ofthe water ofdistilled vinegar.
The oil ofsulphur is more easily extracted, even though it is a material
much more burned up in its nature than is antimony. As far as I know it is
done in two ways: one, by boiling with strong lyes made of ashes and
lime, and the other by means ofburning the sulphur itselfunder a bell that
is open and engulfs all the fume and, by dripping it through the alembic,
distills it into the receiver.
The oils of tartar, saltpeter, sublimate, and arsenic are made by means
of calcinations put into solution in the wet way. The oil of the juniper,
larch, fir, and every tree that produces a gum is made by means ofa vessel
similar to an earthenware pot, perforated on the bottom with many very
small holes. Another is placed underneath as receiver, and in the one on
top is put as much finely cut wood of the kind from which you wish to
extract oil as it will contain, and it is covered and well luted so that it may
not breathe. A pit is made in the ground and both the pots are buried
there, leaving only about four dita ofthe higher one uncovered. The fire
352 PIROTECHNIA book ix
is lighted above, it is heated, and the gummy liquor that the materials
contain is made to run down in this way.
The oil ofseeds is obtained by softening them with warm moist fumes
and by pressing them. In this way that ofmustard seed is extracted, while
that of grain is made by burning it on a red-hot iron. In like manner the
oil is extracted from egg yolks, almonds, nuts, flaxseed, sesame, [130]
hempseed, as well as from aromatic things, nutmeg, mace, and the like.
Figure 68. Earthenware pots for the extraction ofoils from wood,
and the bell for collecting oil from burning sulphur.
Ah these things, after much trituration and a certain heat gradually intro¬
duced there, are mixed and prepared and finally strongly pressed in order
to extract the oil. In this way, you can extract oil from many more things
than I have told you. It is necessary that anyone who wishes to practice
such things have the judgment ofknowing how to recognize something
ofthe nature ofthe things in order to know how to make a choice ofthe
means.
It remains for me now to teU you ofsublimations. In a sense, this means
nothing other than the rising and separation of the subtle parts from the
gross parts ofmineral things and metals, so as to make pure from impure
ones, and also to cause ill-joined earthy materials to be drawn together;
thus united and well chained, they rise when driven by the heat and the
coarse materials remain at the bottom. Wherefore the alchemists say that
they purify their materials in this way and have the substance of things
more perfect and better disposed for their operations than they were
CHAPTER 2 DISTILLATION AND SUBLIMATION 353
before. This subhmate is neither a water nor an unctuous hquor, but a
part ofthe whole reduced into greater virtue and power than that which
you put in to sublime.
This process is pecuhar to the alchemists. With it, as I have told you,
they refine and invigorate their materials and, they say, prepare them to
receive well whatever they wish to introduce in them. It is done in two
ways, that is, by ascent and by descent. For both methods cucurbits of
glass or glazed earthenware are used, well shaped and cleanly worked,
with a long neck. The glass ones should be well luted. For sublimation
with upright cucurbits, that is, by ascent, a httle furnace is made similar to
those for distilling, square or round according to the opinion ofthe work¬
ers, with two openings with grates and with vents. An earthenware cover
is arranged there in which ashes can be placed and when it is lifted away
the bare cucurbit can be put there. In order to do this conveniently, when
you lute the cucurbit make a rim oflute a little above the middle ofit so
that it projects out enough to close up the hole ofthe furnace. Then that
amount ofthe [1301^] desired thing is placed in the cucurbit and it is rested
upright over the two cross irons ofthe furnace that are put there to hold
the earthen cover. Then it is bricked up and filled in with clay so that the
flames cannot pass anywhere except through the vents. When it has been
made thus, fire is applied and is continued slowly until the furnace be¬
comes hot and the materials in the cucurbit melt. Then it is increased and
maintained until you see that fume no longer rises through the mouth of
the cucurbit, or until youjudge in some other way that there is no longer
any need of fire. Thus they sublime not only that which is called sub¬
limate but everything that the alchemists desire. In this way artificial
arsenic is made from orpiment, cinnabar from mercury and sulphur, and
many other things.
The other method is the one that I have told you is done by descent.
The cucurbit, in a fashion opposite to the aforesaid one, stands turned
downward, after the materials have been first thickened and dried out
well, either by a long melting or with white of eggs. Then, the body of
the cucurbit is sealed and a fire of charcoal is applied from above. In this,
since its vigor is very near, every little bit offire takes the place of a great
fire and therefore it is begun slowly and is very gradually increased. This
method is called sublimation per discensorio. The composition that is thus
produced in one way or in the other is found attached to the neck ofthe
cucurbit. But they say that this product is so much the better the more
354 PIROTECHNIA book ix
times it is returned into the thing during the extraction, and it is finally as
ifit were subhmed not once but two or three times.
Sometimes oil is also extracted from things by means ofthis descension
apparatus, by closing the exit for the materials with a little sheet oftinned
iron, finely perforated with many holes. In order that you may under¬
stand this kind of apparatus better, I have wished to draw them as you
see below.
Figure 69. Apparatus for sublimation by ascent and by descent.
Having previously showed you the methods ofmaking waters and oils,
and then ofsubliming, and also having shown you the shapes ofsome of
the vessels and of some common furnaces, I wish now to show you in
drawings[ 131 ] the details ofsome furnaces which are both attractive in ap¬
pearance and very convenient, for they are operated so that one fire serves
to make waters and oils and to sublime at the same time and in several
places, depending on how they are arranged. There is also a great hus¬
banding and saving of charcoal and less labor for the worker. They are
called furnaces with a tower because they look almost like a tower.*
* Athanor is a more usual name (see Fig. 70). For much better illustrations of these
furnaces see Ercker, pp. 64V, 70V, and 74 (1580 edition). One ofthese is reproduced in the
appendix (Fig. X). Agricola does not mention this type of furnace. The ingenious prin¬
ciple of a sealed central fuel tower from which the charcoal fell by gravity into the hearth
as it burned away came to be utilized in very elaborate furnaces, some of which had
as many as eighteen separate stations and degrees of heat, and served for practically
all the chemist’s operations except those requiring a blast. As Pettus says, translating
Ercker, “In such an oven you may keep a fire 24 hours (as abovesaid), that there needs not
much waiting on it, nor casting fresh Coals into it, for the Coals in the Athanor will
follow one another, and keep the fire all the time in due heat (as you please).”
CHAPTER 2 DISTILLATION AND SUBLIMATION 355
They are made in the middle of a room, ofraw or baked bricks or of
other earthenware and are built up by hand like a round, square, or
hexagonal tower (or inwhatever shape you wish) to the height ofone and
a half, two, or three braccia, or whatever you wish, and likewise as wide as
you choose. Take care to make them large enough so that the fire will be
great and powerful. About one and a half or two palmi from the level of
the ground put a little grate that holds the charcoal. An opening is made
on one side from the bottom ofthe grate to the ground, so that the fur¬
nace may receive air through this entrance and the draft may kindle and
keep the fire continuously alive in the charcoal. Then all around outside
build up a bed as high as the grate and as wide as you wish to make the
furnaces, and on each side ofthe tower, level with the grate, make a fairly
good-sized opening as the entrance for the fire. Several little furnaces are
built on to the tower outside, and are shaped like little towers and rave¬
lins, with their battlements, copings, embrasures, and other attractive
ornaments that show in their design the form ofreal ones.
Having made these in this way, first arrange in front of each side or
opening that you left for the fire a brick or a sheet ofiron with three or
four holes in a row, each one succeeding the other in size. This is done so
that you may shut off all the fire from the furnace if desired, or apply just
as much as you wish through one or two ofthose holes.
A cover is made over the top ofthe tower which fits exactly so that the
air entering below may not escape above. This should be arranged so that
it can be taken offand put on. Then all the space ofthis tower is filled with
charcoal and, the cover having been put on top and well luted, the fire is
applied underneath through one ofthe holes. Since this cannot rise up, it
will always keep the charcoal burning brightly only as high up as the
entrance holes to the furnace. As the said charcoal proceeds to consume
itself, it will be replaced bit by bit from above by that which is in the
tower, until it is all consumed. Thus, it is enough for one who distills in
this way to look after the fire only once a day or less often. Certainly this
construction is ingenious, beautiful, and very convenient, and I have seen
some that look like real fortresses. I have seen a putrefier and a drying
apparatus combined with a multiple-distilling apparatus for alembics and
bells. On top there were also a water bath and a reverberatory furnace for
cementation and a httle wind furnace for melting. All these parts were in
the body of one furnace only, and truly the first one that I [1311^] saw
seemed to me a very ingenious, useful, and attractive work, so that I could
356 PIROTECHNIA book ix
not refrain from praising alchemy as the cause ofso greatly arousing the
ingenuity ofthe craftsman.
I have also seen another square furnace with a tower in the middle. It
was simpler but with four vessels and with registers Hke the one described
before. I have also seen one different from all these, with many vessels.
This was a furnace about two and a half hraccia high, with a Httle vault,
and about three-quarters of a brciccio wide in diameter. It was almost like a
Figure 70. Tower furnaces (athanors) for distillation.
Detail at back shows flue register.
dry stove. At the bottom, where the vault began, it had three vents, and
built into the thickness ofits walls were rows ofmany httle glazed earth¬
enware urinals, whose bottoms passed into the furnace, but whose wide
mouths projected out ofthe furnace; on top ofeach was fitted a glass head
with an alembic; and at the very summit there was a Httle bell. A fire of
flames was appHed to this furnace until it was heated, then charcoal was
put in to keep it going. At first sight this seemed beautiful to me, but then
on thinking about it further I did not know whether it was to be praised
or not since it seemed to me a thing that was more superficially attractive
than useful, for I knew that all that was done with so many vessels and
alembics and receivers could be done in one furnace alone with two or
three bells. Besides, when I saw that the first row had more fire than the
second, and the second more than the third, and so on successively, I de¬
cided to say that it did not please me. IfI had to make a similar thing, I
would Hke to make it so that the hoUow space was a tower by which the
CHAPTER 2 DISTILLATION AND SUBLIMATION 357
bottoms ofall the urinals were heated, and which had only a Httle place at
the top to give the heat a chance to rise.
In addition to the furnaces for distilling, I wish now to show you in
drawings the shapes oftwo other Httle furnaces, so that ifyou had never
seen them you may know what is meant when you hear them named.
First is that reverberatory furnace invented by the alchemists for cement¬
ing that is called A tenor* because ofits resemblance, I beheve, to the place
Figure 71. “Three types ofreverberatory distilling furnaces.”
that is said to be in the Inferno, for it possesses the power ofmany flames.
The other is one that is good for distiUing and subliming, and when neces¬
sary for melting with [132] wind. So as not to confuse you with many
words, I shall force myself to make you understand them by means of
drawings, as I have said, and at the same time I shall draw for you the pre¬
viously mentioned one for distilling.
* The 1550 and later editions read atanor. Biringuccio ingeniously but incorrectly
derives this from Antenbra, the place oftraitors in the Inferno. (Dante, Inferno, XXXII.88.)
Antenor was a prominent Trojan, sometimes said to have betrayed his city to the Greeks.
The correct name for the furnace was, of course, athanor, a word derived from the
Arabic. The name was applied by alchemists also, indeed principally, to the tower furnace
with heating chambers at the sides described on page 355. For a greatly superior il¬
lustration of a self-feeding cementing furnace and its accessories see Ercker, page 82v
(1580 edition). Biringuccio describes a simpler cementing furnace on page 203.
358 PIROTECHNIA book ix
THE THIRD CHAPTER
Discourse and Advice on How to Operate a Mint
Honestly and with Profit. SINCE I have told you of the distillation of-waters and the extraction
of oils from things—all ingenious and useful processes—I wish to con¬
tinue to speak ofthe arts. I am reminded that I first wish to write down
for you the discourse that I made to you on another occasion a few days
ago concerning the operation of a mint, so that if you have lost it from
your memory (and this would not be surprising since you have had no
practice in it) youmay repossessitifyou should need to practice it or even to
talk aboutit, and ifyoufindyourselfin this activity it may notbenewto you.
I told you, , as I believe you will remember and so again I repeat, that a
very great and constant diligence is required by one who wishes to oper¬
ate a mint well, or to have it operated, because it has many parts which it
is necessary for anyone who enters this work to understand very well; in¬
deed, if he wishes that all the work of his helpers be done well, he will
have to do it himself. And ifit were possible, he should have a hundred
hands and a hundred eyes together, and at the same time should,be in dif¬
ferent places, because some loss often occurs in what is handled because of
the carelessness of the workers or because of their little real trustworthi¬
ness. It is understood that such things require great hard labors and many
kinds of knowledge. The material handled in this work is most often
either gold or silver all ready to be spent, and these things are very attrac¬
tive to those who handle them. In addition to being made into pieces of
money likely to disappear, it is very easy to lose, and whatever part is
lacking for any reason whatever [1321^] brings detriment and loss to the
patron since it is a thing ofvalue.
Therefore, in short, anyone who wishes to exercise this art well, with¬
out being fraudulent therein, must watch the weights with all care because
the essence of this art is naught but the division of a quantity of weight
into many exactly defined pieces and the alloying ofgold by carats and of
silver by leghe, exactly estabhshed in accordance with what the prince
grants you as remedy.* If through neghgence you exceed in perfection
* The term “remedy” is applied to the amount allowed forthe legitimate and unavoidable
loss in the coining operation, and also to the plus and minus tolerances in both assay and
weight. It was frequently regarded as a source ofprofit for the mint masters, and, as Birin￾guccio says, was sometimes used as the means of paying the moneyer in heu ofother fees.
CHAPTER 3 ON WORKING A MINT 359
you harm yourself without benefit to anyone, and if you fall short, you
fail in your duty, and you become known by most people as a disrepu¬
table person. Very severe and abusive punishment is often dealt for this in
addition to the disgrace. Ifyou choose to proceed in the right way as duty
dictates, the earnings from this work are very slight; yet, because it is in
many small parts done often, and because as soon as it is finished it has its
profit which accumulates, the many small parts multiply in such a way
that a great profit results therefrom at the end ofthe year. Ifyou wish to
do it well, it is necessary that you do as much as possible yourselfbecause,
in addition to earning yourselfwhat your helpers would earn, you avoid
the mob ofhandlers and their greed.
In short, use care in whatever operation you do or have done, especially
in the weights, being careful both in giving them out to be worked and in
receiving them back after they have been worked. Likewise in buying
gold and silver, whether base or fine, open your eyes well, not only to the
deceptions that may be made in the thing itself, but also—with assays,
trials, and touch needles—to its fineness in carats and leghe. Do not hesitate
to satisfy your mind in knowing how much fine there is in the quantity
that is offered you. Then in cementing gold or in refining and parting
silver, always keep your balance and your pen at hand for tallying, having
respect for no one in recognizing the error in every process, ifthere should
be one.
You are to do the same with your helpers; first with the casters, next
with the stampers,* and then with the workmen; and see that you check
often with the weight adjusters, because this is very important, and fmally
with the coiners. As I have said, it is necessary not to be careless in any part
nor to trust yourself to the knowledge or goodness of any person, or in
their hands, ifyou can avoid it, but, as I have told you, to do everything
yourselfifthat is possible.
Therefore it is necessary to be a clever person with an alert mind. One
must be a good arithmetician so as to make no mistakes in reckoning, to
his own or others’ loss. He must also know how to assay silver and gold
well or else have someone who does it faithfully and carefully and does
nothing but this. He must also know how to melt and refine and must
understand the methods of making cupeling hearths appropriate to the
* stempanini; these seem to be the men who flatten the blanks and are distinct from the
coiners proper {coniatori) who strike the coins between engraved dies as the final opera¬
tion, which Biringuccio passes over without description.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 360
materials, for much fraud can be done with these as well as in not refining
well. It should be estabHshed that the waters do not diminish when
granulating auriferous silver, and that the parted gold is wholly recov¬
ered. Even though the weight of each one agrees with the assay, if[133]
your assayer happens to be also your parter, he can do things to his own
great benefit. You must likewise watch the one who melts the parted gold
and silver in order to reduce it into one body, and also the one who cuts
the plates for making the money. Thus, from one kind of work to an¬
other, it is necessary to remain with the eyes always open and to keep the
balance and pen always in hand, for, as I have told you and repeat again,
every vigilance and care must be observed in these things. You should
compare your weights often in order to satisfy your own mind, iffor no
other reason, for it is clear that even the mice and birds wiUingly carry
away gold.
Now in order to come to the various parts ofthis procedure, I shall first
tell you that relating to gold. Having brought it by cementation exactly
to the carat (minus the amount offmeness that is the remedy granted to
you as clear profit by the prince), the quantity that you have or that you
wish to work is taken, melted, and cast in bars. These bars are extended
with a hammer on a flat anvil and are all reduced to a certain uniform
thinness. These are cut crosswise from the length into little squares like
dice so that they turn out a little heavier than the money you wish to
make. Then they are cut into pieces all ofthe same size with a pair oflarge
cutting pincers. They are then annealed in a little frying pan or something
else with a red-hot fire of charcoal, after which they are given to the
stampers and in one or two blows are all flattened out one by one on a
stone. Thus made, they are smoothed by the workers and brought almost
to the size that they are to have. In this shape they go to the adjusters who
carefully reduce them to the exact weight without any excess. Then they
are returned in this condition to the workers who finish smoothing them
and roundmg them by hammering on the edges. Thus made, they are
heated and thrown into a common blanching liquor made with powdered
tartar, salt and water, or urine. In this way the gold is cleaned and bright¬
ened and then the pieces are washed well with clear water. When dried,
they are sent to the dies* and thus coined they are finished so that they
have only to be spent.
Silver money is made in a way similar to that of gold, after you have
* stampa; perhaps “to the press,” but unlikely.
CHAPTER 3 ON WORKING A MINT 361
converted the quantity that you wish to work to the proper alloy. There
is no difference in the procedure of working except that silver is poured
into plates instead of bars. These are cut with large pincers into httle bars,
and from bars into small squares. In flattening it, more blows are needed
since it is a harder thing. Also, some rock alum is put in the blanching
liquor in addition to tartar and salt because they whiten better.
There are some who, to avoid having the little squares flattened out by
the stampers, have the bars of this silver or gold passed through a wire¬
drawing plate,* drawn out with a Httle windlass. In this way they bring it
to a definite size so that, when cut and then smoothed and rounded, they
come out to almost the exact weight, and the worker has only the labor of
hammering the edges and finishing the smoothing. There is even less
[i33f] work for the workers and the adjuster when the bar is cut with a
round punch which brings them almost to the exact size with a single cut.
Copper money is not really made for the copperf it contains, but for
the silver that is added as alloy. Since it is not always large pieces ofmoney
that are spent and since the value of a quattrinoj or two in silver would be
so small a piece that it could be not conveniently used if one had a quan¬
tity to handle, it has therefore become customary to mix with it that
quantity of copper which is added in order to make the piece larger. In
this also, after the quantity that you wish to work into money has been
taken, it is melted in a ladle or large crucible and alloyed by adding to
every pound offine copper enough fine silver—usually one ounce, three
pennyweight for every pound—to give it the value you wish the resultant
money to have, subtracting, however, the amount that is to cover the
expense, or that is promised to you by the prince. When this has been
melted, it is cast in hot iron plates greased with fat or with a mixture
that is made to cause it to run better, which I shall also teach you. Then
the said thin cast plates are taken and cut with the large cutting pincers,
* trafiUa. This method of drawing the plates through a die, mentioned by Leonardo da
Vinci, is an interesting and probably direct antecedent to rolling. The first recorded use of
rolls was probably in 1532 in Nuremberg. The other important mechanical aid to mint¬
ing, the screw press, was known in Biringuccio’s time. Cellini {Trattati deU'oreJiceria e
della scultura, Florence, 1568) says that he used a screw press in executing more than one
hundred medals for Pope Clement VII (1523-1534).
I This “copper” is in reality the base silver-copper alloy commonly called billon. It
was extensively used on the Continent for coins ofsmall denomination.
f The quattrino was a billon coin, weighing 0.65 grams, about 17 mm. diameter and
worth I/40 of a giulio. Other coins mentioned by Biringuccio are the giulio (page 430)
and the grosso (page 405).
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 362
making bars as long as can be gotten from the plates. Then they are cut
crosswise and Httle squares like dice are made, large enough to contain the
weight ofthe quattrino. Now made in this way, these pieces are annealed
with charcoal and when annealed are all flattened out with two or three
hammer blows by one or more stampers. Then they are annealed again
and you proceed with these in a way similar to the others described to you
up to the point where they are to be finished. But now the end varies
according to the places where such money is current, because some princes
want them to appear white and some black. Those coins that are to appear
white are made to appear white by means ofthe blanching liquor. Those
that are to appear black are made so in a large frying pan perforated like a
sieve, in which they are put with burning charcoal and frequently tossed
up many times so that they may be in the air and may be heated without
burning. Thus the silver is forced to cast out its blackness as all base silvers
always do. When the coins made in this way have been freed of charcoal
and cooled, they are sent to the dies, and so reach their final end.
Now since I have advised you concerning all the precautions that I
could, I do not wish to omit this additional one—that you take every care
to have good masters who make good and beautiful master dies* for you.
For these almost always cause people to praise the coin together with
those who have made it and those who have had it made, and it is a thing
that everyone approves as good and holds that much more dear.
Now, concerning the skill and procedure necessary for this practice, I
shall repeat in general: First, it is necessary to know well how to assay, to
cement, to make [134] cupeling hearths, to part, and to make all kinds of
melts when necessary. I do not repeat them again, since I have previously
told you ofthese things in the part on ores in the Third Book.
I now wish to teach you the dressing that I told you before is for greas¬
ing the plate moulds so that the molten copper cast therein may spread out
and become thin. It is made in this way. Cow dung is taken and tempered
with strong lye. Ifyou could have strong soft-soap scum it would be bet¬
ter because it is softer; washing lye suds are also good. In a quantity ofone
ofthese things put enough cow dung to make it as thick as a sauce. Then
pass it two or three times through a sieve so that it becomes very fine.
Furthermore, put half a pound or more of the soap used for washing
clothes in every three or four bowlfuls ofthis mixture; ifyou put in more
it will be that much better. Alternatively put in old tallow or some other
* stozzi.
CHAPTER 4 THE GOLDSMITH 363
grease. When your moulds have been very well heated, thoroughly
grease them with this composition after it has been properly compounded
over the fire, and cast in them at your pleasure. By greasing them with oil
ofsubhmate you can also make every casting run and come out well, but
it is a thing that requires excessive expense and labor to do.
THE FOURTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Art ofthe Goldsmith. IN discussing the art ofthe goldsmith, it is apparent that it is an art re¬
quiring skill. He who wishes to be acclaimed a good master therein
must be a good universal master in several arts, for the different kinds
ofwork that come to his hands to be done are infinite. Those who work in
gold and silver must outdistance all other craftsmen in learning and
achievement to the same degree that their materials outdistance other
metals in nobihty.
Therefore, it is necessary first of all to be a good designer, because
design is the key that opens the doors not only to the goldsmith’s craft but
to all others. Then it is necessary that he understand melting and that he
know well how to work with a hammer and how to use flat gravers and
burins in engraving, as well as files and chisels. He must also possess cer¬
tain secrets that are needful to the art, which in truth are parts ofalchemy,
such as softening gold when it is brittle and raw, coloring it when it has
little color, soldering, enameling, working in niello, blanching, gilding,
and an infinite number ofthings which must all bc known in detail. But
above all he who wishes to do this art well must be very patient in work¬
ing, must know how to mould and how to proceed with the melt and
with the file, hammer, chisel, or other implements for bringing his gold
or silver work to the final state which he plans. He must also have good
judgment in gems and know well how to recognize every [1341'] good or
defective quality they possess, and to distinguish the false gem from the
true, either when set or when unmounted, as there is need; also how to
value them both in buying or selling and in satisfying others who seek his
appraisal. He should also be experienced not only in the technique of
melting but also in the methods of assaying, parting, refining, cementing,
and the Hke, and still many others. But ifI wished to tell you ofevery part
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 364
oftheir practice, it would be an impossibility, for, as I have told you, they
must be intelHgent and good masters in as many things as are given them
to do. Therefore, those are rare who can be approved as good master
goldsmiths, for one has his profession in engraving, another in the ham¬
mer, and another in mounting and setting jewels and in making a ring
well. Each one of these things is part of this art, and he who does the
greatest number of them most merits praise as a good master.
Their ordinary procedure, as you may have seen, is to melt over a httle
forge with small single-handed bellows, in httle crucibles ot fire-resistant
crude clay. To save time, they cast all metals in cuttlebone, having first
moulded in halves the object they are to make. They then patiently reduce
these castings to their intended finish, using files or their httle hammers,
depending on the object.
There are, in short, three things (in addition to the general ones) that
are greatly esteemed in this art; first, engraving and making figures or
foliage in full or bas-relief; next, drawing out a vessel in silver or gold
well with a hammer so that it is ofone solid piece and of good shape; and
third, setting a gem accurately and gracefully in a ring or in something
else and knowing how to adorn it well so that it may show its value or
even more if possible. If you wish to possess these abilities you must
acquire them either through a great talent or through much practice.
But, with all this, I do not wish to fail to tell you ofsome things con¬
cerning their operations which they withhold from most people almost
like secrets, so that you may know these as well. First is the method of
softening gold when it does not sustain the blows ofthe hammer because
ofsome trace of lead or ofsomething else that it has picked up. This is
melted in a crucible and crushed glass is thrown in, or a little sal alkali
with wax, or three or four pinches ofpowdered sublimate, after which it
is heated well.
Also if the work should not have its yellow color, it is smeared with
some verdigris and sal ammoniac tempered with urine or vinegar. It is
put to heat over charcoal and, while still very hot, is thrown in urine and
scaled. * It is also washed by making it boil in water with powdered yel¬
low sulphur. This is done more with silver containing gold than with
works ofgold itself. It is also turned yellow with a boiling ofscrapings or
* hrustando. This process is intended to remove the silver from the surface ofthe object,
leaving it enriched in gold. A somewhat similar method of obtaining a silver-rich layer
on objects of argentiferous copper is given on page 369.
CHAPTER 4 THE GOLDSMITH 365
filings of bull’s or ram’s horn, with chopped straw, and with the soot of
feathers or ofthe same horns. But these are things that stand up but a short
time.
In the same way, when silver is raw and harsh, it is softened by putting
it in a cupeling hearth, or by [135] melting it with saltpeter, tartar,
crushed glass, or sal alkaU, and many other things composed and discov¬
ered by the alchemists. Silver is cleaned ofits superficial skin and is whit¬
ened by boiling with tartar, common salt, and, ifdesired, with some rock
alum.
Soldering is also a very necessary part ofthis art because it is used often
and it must be employed with great discretion. First, take good care that
the solder is not harder to melt than the thing you wish to solder so that
the work, when it is put on the fire to soften it, does not melt before the
solder. It is therefore necessary to make the solder soft, corrupting it by
decreasing the carat or the lega with silver, brass, or copper, although fine
gold and fine silver brought together with a little borax or* verdigris are
joined without other solder. A little furnace is made expressly for solder¬
ing, or a space like a little furnace is arranged on a forge with large pieces
of charcoal. The work is bound and prepared with the solder and a little
borax. The solder is made of fine silver with a half brass and a quarter
burned copper, broken and cut into small pieces. The work is held with
tongs or some other tool, and when your charcoal is burning well, the
work is put in the place prepared for making it flow. By applying some
wind with a little bellows, the fire is quickened until the solder is seen to
have run well all over, when the work is taken out immediately and put
to cool. Thus every work that is broken or made in pieces is soldered and
made one.
NieUo’j' is also apphed in certain engravings or profiles as an ornament
* Sic: should be “and,” unless chrysocolla is meant for borax. See note, page 117.
There are no alloys of gold and silver oflower melting point than silver itself. The use of
verdigris as a solder depends on its reduction to finely divided copper in the reducing
flame and the ready alloying of this with gold or silver to produce a low-melting alloy.
f Niello is a low melting-point mixture of metallic sulphides which is fused into en¬
graved designs in gold, silver, or copper ware. The warm black color of the sulphide is
particularly beautiful in contrast with silver and would be superb in modern design.
Within the limits imposed by the melting-point requirements, the quality ofthe color can
be varied by changing the proportions ofthe base metals, which are always copper, silver,
and lead. Niello was used in Roman times and is related to “Mary’s Black” of the al¬
chemists, so named after Mary the Jewess.
M. Rosenberg, in Volume I of his Geschichte der Goldschmiedekunst auftechnischer Grund-
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 366
for goldsmiths’ works. This is first compounded by taking one part offine
silver, two of copper, and three offine lead; An earthen vessel that has a
long narrow neck is halffiUed with powdered sulphur and the said melted
metals are poured in on top. As soon as they have been put in, the mouth
ofthe vessel is closed with clay and is very well shaken. When cold, the
vessel is broken and the material taken out, cleaned, washed, and finally
ground. It is used for filling in the spaces ofthe work as desired. By blow¬
ing with Httle bellows on a small furnace made oflarge pieces ofcharcoal
with a few wood flames, it is enlivened and made to run over your work.
When it has run it is pressed in gently with a piece ofwood or iron, then
it is taken out and allowed to cool. After this has been done, it is uncov¬
ered by removing the excess with a file and it is polished with a piece of
cane and fine pumice and is made shining and beautiful by rubbing it with
tripoH powder.
Enameling is also included in this art, but there are few in our regions
who can perform this well because they are dependent on enamels and on
the thing they wish to enamel, for each kind of gold, silver, or copper re¬
quires enamel harmonious to its nature, else it does not respond. These are
not made in our regions but are bought already made, and they work well
if good ones are found, but, ifnot, our masters work with those that they
have so as not to struggle too much with the difficulties. Now in order to
use these, they are finely ground and washed with several waters. Each
kind ofcolor is [135^] put by itselfin a little glazed saucer with some clear
water. Then some ofthe desired color is taken with a copper or iron knife
which is somewhat flattened at the point and one proceeds to put it over
the work, covering the spaces somewhat thickly and pressing it with a
little cotton or unglazed paper so as to dry up the water. After this work
has been done and all that you wish to enamel has been covered, it is put
on a fire of charcoal in a little clay furnace made expressly with a little
muffle like those for making assays, or in one made of large pieces of
charcoal like those for soldering and applying niello. With flames ofbran
and the blast of a little bellows they become so highly colored that they
show up very well. Then the excess is removed and leveled off on a
lage, gives a comprehensive history of niello, and includes a table of the compositions
recommended by various authors from Pliny to the present day, with the neglect, how¬
ever, of Biringuccio. Cellini {Trattati dell’orejlceria e della scultura, 1568) describes exactly
the same composition and manner of making it that Biringuccio does, and is evidently
quoting him.
CHAPTER 4 THE GOLDSMITH 367
grinding wheel ifyour work is flat. It is again returned to the fire so that
it may glaze again and become lustrous, so that the colors may appear
beautiful and attractive as you have divided and applied them.
A kind ofwork which they call filigree is also required for this art. This
is actually a work with gold or silver wire and the attaching ofleafwork,
fruits, seeds, or the like on thick foil. First the wires are drawn through a
drawplate to make the stems. Then the little leaves are stamped over a
piece oflead. The seeds are made of the same wires, cut and hammered
and put to melt between layers of ashes in a httle crucible. They are taken
out when cold. Finally these things are taken and composed in the ar¬
rangement ofthe design and attached in their places with a paste ofquince
seeds or gum arabic, and finally the soldering is done with borax and a
soft solder of gold or silver in one of the little furnaces previously de¬
scribed. The solder flows with the flames of bran or dry elder twigs.
Surely one who works according to these descriptions and is a good
master easily achieves results so beautiful that it is difficult for one who
sees to understand.
Except for the manual work, the art ofthe goldsmith has a close con¬
nection with that ofthe alchemists because it often makes a thing appear
what it is not, as is seen in setting gems, in heightening the color ofgold, in
whitening silver, and also in gilding things that really are ofsilver, brass,
or copper but appear to be ofgold. They also make things appear to be of
good and fine silver when they are not. In doing this they follow two
ways. One is with beaten gold leaf attached after the object has been
activated with quicksilver. The other is by making a mixture offine gold
with mercury and spreading it on the object with a copper rod. The
mercury applied on the work in both these ways is then evaporated
with fire and the gold remains. If it is gold, it is quenched in urine; and
if it is silver on brass or copper, it is thrown in oil and heated with bran
flames.
Every work ofgold and silver, as well as copper, may be worked either
hot or cold, only you must be careful to anneal the thing at every ham¬
mering or when it needs it.
Having told you the general facts concerning this art ofworking with
gold and silver, I think I have said enough about it. All the rest that is
necessary depends entirely on ingenuity and [136] practice. But surely a
very ingenious and beautiful thing in this art that should not be left unre¬
lated is the discovery of making the foils that are put under gems to en-
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 368
hance their beauty by revealing their virtues ofhmpidity and color.* This
composition was discovered through observing the art oftempering, but
employs also the virtue of great heat and various fumes used for this in
addition to the elemental mixture and composition ofthe material.
THE FIFTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Art ofthe Coppersmith.
A GREAT labor, surely, is that of the coppersmith, since his every
work must be hewn from the mass ofcopper by force ofthe ham￾JL ^ mer. At the beginning, middle, and end all his works are incon¬
venient pieces and unpleasant to handle. Ifthe work is done on the forge
with the fire, it is done in order to refme or compose it into masses again,
for drawing these out while hot with the blows ofsome heavy hammer,
or in order to put the works in a condition that allows them to be drawn
out while cold and worked. In this he puts aU his labor and industry. He
who works at this art often makes use of large hammers, sometimes of
small ones, and sometimes of those that have a long iron head and a
short handle. With these he is obliged ever to proceed in one of these
activities, either extending the work lengthwise, narrowing it, or widen¬
ing it. This is achieved by the manner and direction ofstriking and there¬
fore it is sometimes hammered on the inside, sometimes on the outside,
sometimes with the peen, and sometimes with the flat head. For instance,
when he wishes to close it up he strikes it on the outside with the peen, and
ifhe wishes to widen it he strikes it on the inside with either the flat head
or the peen. In this way he proceeds to shape it with constant patience, and
to make all the vessels that he works graceful.
This metal, as I have told you, is soft, flexible, and tenacious under the
hammer. It yields with a certain toughness, provided, however, that it is
fme and without admixture of a trace oftin or other metal. That crafts¬
man is a good master of this art who best makes every desired work
* These foils were necessitated by the old methods of cutting stones which did not
cause total internal reflection of the incident light. They were made of various alloys of
gold, silver, and copper, hammered very thin, carefully cleaned and heated to develop
temper colors. Celhni {Trattati dell’orejiceria e della scultura) describes their production in
detail, and lists the best alloy for each color.
CHAPTER 6 THE IRONSMITH 369
exactly, with one piece, uniform all over, thin, and well shaped, and who
avoids making many wild blows of the hammer here and there, one
stronger than the other.
When it is necessary to solder, coppersmiths solder with base silver or
with burned copper and borax, and often, indeed usually, with mixed tin
and lead with a httle Grecian pitch, rubbing it over the thing they wish to
solder with a hot copper soldering iron.
In order that they may not give any taste, odor, kind ofpoison, or other
mahgnant power to the food, it is also customary to give these copper ves¬
sels a complete coating oftin or, indeed, ofsolder itself. To do this, a little
salt and vinegar is boiled and the vessels are cleaned well inside with this.
Then some [1361^] tin mixed with a fourth part of lead and with some
powdered Grecian pitch is melted. The tin is applied as you wish by rub¬
bing it all over the outside and inside with a brush oftow tied to the point
of a tool or held with a pair oftongs.
When he wants a vessel to be made so that it verily appears to be not of
copper but of burnished silver, one who works in this way anneals the
vessel often and quenches it in water or salt urine, and he also rubs it often
with iron scale in order to free it of the coppery blackness and thus he
purges it.
Copper is melted and cast in little cakes each time it is to be worked. To
conclude, I do not know any notable secret in this art except pure smithy
work and manual labor.
THE SIXTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Art ofthe Smith who Works in Iron.
^IT She task of the smith who works in iron is very laborious, indeed
far more so than that ofthe coppersmith just described. For he also
Jl handles heavy weights continually, and stands constantly erect be¬
fore the fire ofthe forge, since the hardness ofthe iron cannot be softened
except by means ofheating and boihng it well. In this place he continually
moves his body, now thrusting the iron into the heart of the fire with
large thick tongs, now removing it to look at it and to put sand, tuff, or
other earth over it, now putting on fresh charcoal, now moistening and
slowing down the fire, and now cleaning it. Finally, while the iron is hot
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 370
he strikes with powerful mallets and heavy hammers, as you see, and
brings it to whatever end he wishes to make of the work. As you can
understand, the unhappy workmen are never able to enjoy any quiet
except in the evening when they are exhausted by the laborious and long
day that began for them with the first crowing of the cock. Sometimes
they even fall asleep without bothering about supper.
On wishing to consider the procedure and the parts of this practice, I
seem to see it divided into many kinds. One smith is master only ofmas¬
sive iron things, such as anchors, anvils, wall chains, or guns; another of
plowshares, spades, axes, hoes, and other similar tools for working the
earth and for reaping the harvests. Others are masters of more genteel
irons such as knives, daggers, swords, and other arms for wounding with
the point and edge. Others again make scythes and saws, others gouges,
chisels, hatchets, drills, and similar things, including locks and keys. Still
others make crossbows and muskets, and others make armor for protect¬
ing and arming the various parts ofthe human body. And there are many
more, so that, in short, there are as many kinds ofspecial masters as there
are things that are made or can be made of iron.
But all these depend on boiling and heating well the iron or steel that
they wish to work, and on a certain patience in shaping the object well
and in [137] bringing it to completion with the hammer and not* with the
file or wheel. Above all it should not be laminated. If the work is to be
ofiron and steel together, it must be made so that they are well united and
where it needs to be tempered, this should be done properly. In this many
are deceived. Those who are proficient in the said parts are to be called
good masters, since there are many who burn the mass when they intend to
boil it, and many who are so afraid ofdoing this that they do not bring it
to the true point that they should, for when they work it while hard it
laminates and breaks apart and does not hold together. There are some
masters who work iron well and steel poorly; some work steel well and
iron poorly; though in truth to one who hears this it seems unbehevable,
this is found to be so. When, finally, I consider what this art is, it seems to
me that everything in all kinds depends only on experience, since these
craftsmen are people without plan, and most of them are crude country
people, and ifthey know how to do one thing they do not know how to
do another. Nevertheless, what they do learn they know well enough up
to a certain point. And surely this art is very necessary to human beings,
* The word “not” is improperly omitted from the 1550 and later editions.
CHAPTER 6 THE IRONSMITH 371
not only for cultivating the soil, but for an infinite number of activities—
indeed there is no one whom this art does not serve.
There are also in this art some secrets;* for example, the welding that is
done not only with the iron itself but also by boiling that which is being
made with fine copper. Another secret is to add the sand, tuff, or other
earth that melts. This is needed when the iron is boiled in order to protect
it from the fire and to retain the vigor ofthe heat inside.
Other secrets are the various temperings with water, herb juices, or
oils, as well as the tempering offiles. In these things, as well as in common
water, it is necessary to understand well the colors that are shown and
thrown offon cooling, "f It is necessary to know how to provide that they
acquire these colors well in cooling, according to the work and also the
fineness ofthe steel. Because the first color that is shown by steel when it is
quenched while fiery is white, it is called silver; the second which is yel¬
low like gold they call gold; the third which is bluish and purple they call
violet; the fourth is ashen gray. You quench them at the proper stage of
these colors as you wish them more or less hard in temper. If you wish it
very hard, heat your iron well and quench it rapidly in the tempering
baths that you have prepared or in clear cold water.
Another secret is touching with soap or with the point of a ram’s horn,
which is done when the iron is hot in the place you wish to temper so as
better to disclose when it is at the exact stage ofits color.
* The list ofsecrets that follows has somewhat the style of the Kunsthiichlein and may
have been copied from one of them or from a MS. collection of recipes. According to
Ferguson and Darmstaedter, the editions ofthe Kunsthiichlein that appeared in 1532, 1535,
and 1537 (any of which might have been known to Biringuccio) contain various details
on the working ofiron, including hardening, soldering, and etching. We have, unfortu¬
nately, been unable to obtain access to any ofthese editions.
f The steel was given an interrupted quench to give directly the desired temper color,
and hardness, withoutreheating. It is interesting to note the recent revival ofthis process on
a scientific basis with the production of degrees of hardness and toughness in combina¬
tions that were impossible on the basis ofquenching and reheating. For once it seems that
a lost art has been rediscovered and the metallurgical products ofthe old masters actually
were sometimes superior to the modern ones.
It has been common to scoffat the old recipes for quenching baths (involving the urine
ofred-headed boys and fern-fed goats as well as herb juices, snails, and waters offar-off
rivers) but there may be justification for them. Not only would salts and organic matter
modify cooling rates but they would also have effect on the temper colors and perhaps
enable the correct end point to be more easily or exactly observed. A clean surface on
which to show the colors was obtained, as Biringuccio tells in the next paragraph, by
touching the hot steel with a ram’s horn or soap.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 372
Another secret is the tempering offiles. This is done with the soot of
ram’s horn or of ox hoofs, crushed glass, and common salt, all moistened
with vinegar. This composition is smeared all over the file, and then all
these things are heated together well and suddenly quenched in vinegar,
urine, or cold water.
Another secret is soldering a fracture in a sickle, saw, or sword, by
taking a little [i37f] base silver and borax or crushed glass, and holding
the broken place together with a pair ofglowing hot tongs and holding it
so tightly that the solder runs and then cools thus.
Another secret is working the iron when it has taken up some trace of
another metal and does not stand up under the hammer either when hot
or when cold. It is boiled and some ashes of eggshell or snail shells or
powdered quicklime are applied.*
Another secret is softening iron and making it as soft and malleable as
lead by greasing it with the oil of bitter almonds, then covering it with
wax mixed with asafetida and some sal alkali, and clothed with lute
made of horse dung and crushed glass. It is then put on a fire of well¬
burning charcoal overnight, or until the fire goes out. Then it is taken out
and is found to be soft and malleable.
It is also a secret to make it hard by tempering it in horse-radishjuice or
in the dew that is found on the leaves of chick-pea.
Another secret is to rub it with hme after grinding with the wheel in
order to give it a luster and make it beautiful.
Another secret is to make it sublime into rust, that is, with an acid made
of sal ammoniac, sublimate, verdigris, and a httle nut gall in vinegar.
After you have made your designs with a stylus (having previously
applied a covering of varnish or wax to protect it where you do not wish
the acid to lift away), smear your iron with these things and keep it thus
for five or six hours, when all those designs will be found etched.
It is also a secret to use the virtue of another acid made of verdigris,
tartar, and common salt for moistening iron that you wish to gild either
wholly or in part, then having dried and moistened it again while still
warm, you cause it to take the mercury, above which the amalgam of
gold is rubbed or gold leafis apphed and the iron remains gilded.
Another method of gilding that is done with leaf is also a secret. The
iron that you wish to gild is first worked cleanly and with exactness, and
then polished with a sharp square piece oftempered steel, always holding
* This treatment would be effective through desulphurization.
CHAPTER 6 THE IRONSMITH 373
the work with pointed tongs without touching it because ofthe greasiness
of the hand. Engrave it with a sharp tool, going all over it very finely,
crosshatching and intersecting like a file. Then, when it has been heated in
a fire until it is just about to become red, it is taken out and freed from
ashes. A fairly thick silver leaf is applied all over it, and pressed with a
burnisher of hard bloodstone or tempered steel. Then a little mercury is
applied over this, and a covering ofgold or silver leafis laid on top—two,
three, or as many as you wish in order to gild it better. Over this gold
surface you hammer with a httle punch and impress leafwork, arabesques,
or whatever is most pleasing. Then, in some places under the folds or out¬
lines the gold is skillfully shaved away with a scraper down to the silver so
that it appears a very beautiful and cunningly wrought thing showing
silver and gold together. Then the work is outlined with a little brush
with a varnish of amber and dried in the heat of a furnace, [138] charring
it so that it makes the outline black and lustrous.
A very great secret, and one that is still not well known to me al¬
though I have practiced it diligently in order to learn it, is the method
used for those fme little works of gold on daggers and other weapons in
which there are trees, figures, and very tiny Httle animals. This is called
tarsia work* and is done by the azzimina workers of Damascus, who fit
into their vessels little pieces of gold, so that it is not apparent how it is
done for it evidently needs much time and patience.
In short, even limiting the use of hammers [i.e., smithy work] to the
working ofiron alone, it seems to me that beyond comparison it has more
uses and that it has more secrets and perhaps more ingenious secrets than
the art ofany other metal. Thus, ifit were not an activity so laborious and
without any delicacy, I would say that it is one greatly to be lauded, for
when I consider that the masters make their works without moulds or
pattern, letting only the eye and good judgment suffice for it, and that
they make it exact and ofgood shape by hammering alone, it seems to me
a great thing. And what shall we say of those who make crossbows that
must support the force given them and must bend their two horns exact y
the same amount? For it is necessary not only that such a master fashion lit
exactly but also he must temper it. Then look at how many kinds of
works an ironsmith must necessarily put his hand to.
Thus, in conclusion, it seems to me an art comprising great knowledge.
* lavori di tanccia (1540 edition). We assume this to be a misprint for tarsia. Later edi¬
tions read tanza, lanza, or tdcia.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 374
for I know of no art or activity whatever, excluding the sciences and
painting, that does not need this as its principal member. Therefore, in
my opinion, if it were not for the nobility of the material, I would say
that the smith working in iron should justly take precedence over the
goldsmith because of the great benefit that he brings.
THE SEVENTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Art ofthe Pewterer. Having told you of the practices of the arts involving other
metals, I wish to tell you also ofthe practice ofthat oftin.* In¬
deed, since this is an easily melted metal, in common use for the
utensils which are made for human needs, it is an art known not only to
skilled men but also almost to children, wherefore I could proceed with¬
out telling ofit. However, besides the production ofplates and bowls and
many other dishes for eating from and keeping things in, this embraces
two other arts, both of which you should know about because they are
useful and beautiful. One of these is the art of making the letters with
which books are printed, and the other is that ofmaking the sheets from
which organ pipes are built.
The vessels, as perhaps you have seen, are cast one by one in moulds
made of white tuff. Several pieces fastened together are then put on the
iron axle of a wheel rotated by hand, and [1381^] they are turned with a
slightly bent tool which has a cutting edge. In this way they are made thin
and ofa good shape. Then they are polished with a piece oflinen cloth and
a little powdered tripoli, and thus they are finished.
The letters for printing books are made of a composition ofthree parts
offine tin, an eighth part of black lead, and another eighth part offused
marcasite of antimony. { The desired quantities ofthese metals are melted
*Biringuccio uses stagno for both tin and pewter. We have usedwhichever seemed more
appropriate to the context.
f Biringuccio’s actual words in describing the composition ofthe type metal are: ‘Vnd
copositione di tre parti di stagnojino & vna ottaua parte di piomho negro & vnaltra ottaua parte
di margassita d’antimonio fusa.” In giving this composition he is perhaps quoting the ter¬
minology ofthe type caster, though it is more likely that he is quoting some Latin source,
for in Latin the distinction was made between plumbum candidum (tin) and plumbum
nigrum (lead). The umiecessary appellation “black” is otherwise hard to explain.
Most early references to type metal require that the crude antimony (i.e., antimony
CHAPTER 7 THE PEWTERER 375
and cast into bars so arranged that they can easily be cut. Then a mould is
made ofbrass or bronze, as true as possible and flat so that it may fit into
its companion. The parts ofthis mould are adjusted to make the thickness
and length ofthe stems ofthe letters, and likewise are adapted underneath
so that the matrix can be put in exactly. The matrix is the impression of
the letter that you wish to make, or rather to cast, made by the steel punch
on a little piece of copper. When the matrix has been put in its place and
the thicknesses likewise fixed by means of certain little screws which
secure and close aU the pieces of the mould in their places, some of that
composition is melted in an iron pot and the letters cast one at a time with
a ladle. When they have the desired quantity of one kind ofletter, they
take out the matrix and insert another, continuing in this way until they
have as many as they wish of all kinds. Then they cut off the gates and
adjust them all to the same size with a mould as a little gauge. With these
letters, one by one, the compositors set the press forms for the books in a
frame made of iron, bronze, or wood, and compress and lock them in
with screws set in the outer edges. Then they are smeared with linseed-oil
soot well incorporated with liquid varnish and made into ink. Finally,
these letters that have been set up are printed by means of a screw press.
sulphide) be first melted with iron or copper in order to liberate a metallic regulus which
was later alloyed with lead and sometimes tin. The fact that Biringuccio omits this step
makes it certain that by the phrase margassita d'antimonio fusa he means regulus of anti¬
mony, although elsewhere in his book he uses metallina for regulus. Biringuccio does not
mention marcasite ofantimony anywhere but here, and his discussion ofantimony in the
chapter devoted to it shows that he follows the custom ofhis time in using the unqualified
term antimonio for the native sulphide. Since in Book II he discusses marcasite in a way
which indicates that he uses the term to embrace pyrite and sulphidic minerals in general,
it might be claimed that antimony sulphide is meant here, but we do not think so.
It is to be noted that the type metal is a tin-rich composition and not a lead-rich anti¬
mony alloy of the sort that later became popular. This and other evidence suggests that
type casting may have stemmed from the pewterer’s technique. The pewterer was already
using metal moulds with replaceable parts in producing numerous identical castings. The
various attempts that have been made to reconstruct the steps of Gutenberg’s invention
on the assumption that he started with the bronze founder’s sand or clay moulds seem to
the metallurgist to be unnecessarily complicated. If, as Biringuccio says, the pewterer’s
method of casting was known even to children, why should not any ingenious person
wanting to duplicate type go directly to it when it is so obviously applicable to his needs’
This description ofthe art oftypecasting is the earliest one known, though a hundred
years had elapsed since the invention. A facsimile of page 138V ofthe 1540 edition ofthe
Pirotechnia and an annotated extract from the present translation were published by the
Columbiad Club ofConnecticut as Keepsake No. 42 (1941).
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 376
the operation ofwhich we will leave aside since it does not belong to our
subject.*
Of tin, as well as oflead, are made the cast plates for making tiles for
roofing churches and other pubhc buildings, and also for making organs,
or for water pipes. But, whichever of these things you wish to make, in
order not to break your arms or cause others to break theirs in flattening
the tin or lead with a hammer, make a Httle furnace in a vessel ofearth or
iron almost as a reverberatory is made, and melt therein the quantity of
tin or lead that you wish. When you see that it is melted, which is recog¬
nized when you put in a strip of paper or a feather and it burns at once,
then for every pound of tin put in a quarter ofsal ammoniac and mix it
well with a stick. With this, you wiU see it become thin and clear in an
instant, as ifit were a water.
Before putting your tin or lead to melt, you should have made a mould
on a board as long and as wide as you wish the tile to be, having on its
* One ofthe very few places where the later editions differ materially from the first is
in this section. Perhaps the printer ofthe second edition, Giovan Paduano ofVenice, had
a hand in this, for there are details added that he would naturally know about. After
describing the compounding ofthe metal in the same words as above, the 1550 and later
editions continue thus:
“Then a mould is made of brass or bronze, as true as possible and flat so that it may fit
into its companion. The parts ofthis mould are adjusted to make the length ofthe stems
of the letters, and likewise are adapted underneath so that the matrix can be put in
exactly. The matrix is the hollow made by the steel punch on the little piece ofcopper on
which the letter that you wish to cast has been impressed. This is then put in its place and
the thickness fixed by means of certain screws that produce this effect and hold all the
pieces of the mould in their places. Meanwhile some of the aforesaid composition is
melted in a certain large ladle suitable for such use. Then, when the material has been
melted and made liquid by means of a fire ofstrong charcoal, some ofit is taken with an
iron ladle and is poured into the said mould and the letters are made one at a time. Having
made the quantity of one letter that they wish, they remove the matrix and put in an¬
other, continuing in this way until they have the number that they wish of all. Then they
remove the said letters and cut offthe toot, that is, the part that is to lie on the bed where
the composition is placed for printing when the work is being carried out; first, however,
those fins that remain attached to the letters in casting are removed one by one - with a
knife so that they may remain wholly clean and without any unevenness. This done, the
compositors next compose the letters one by one in forms and compress them in certain
frames made ofiron, bronze, or wood and equipped with screws in the edges so that they
lock them in such a way that not one could be taken out without unscrewing them.
“Then the books are printed, using for them an ink made up ofsoot of linseed oil or
resin that has been mixed with liquid varnish and well incorporated. Finally they smear
with this ink certain balls made ofskins similar to those ofwhich dog leads are made and
beat these over the composed forms. Then they squeeze them under the force of an
ingenious little screw press. This is the way books are printed.”
CHAPTER 8 WIRE DRAWING 377
sides two exact rules which make a protection on every side. It should
be somewhat inclined. On the said board make a layer ofsand or sifted
ashes [139] half a dito thick, and having first pressed it down by hand with
a rule, spread it out and make it exactly flat. Then have another piece of
board that exactly fits between the two sides and closes well against the
sand and ashes so that the metal cannot pass against your wdl. This board
should have a notch in each corner so that it fits into the rules. Then bring
this up to the top and pour in as much of that melted tin or lead as you
think is needed to make the plate; immediately begin very slowly to move
the cross board that forms the retainer, and proceed downward to the
foot.* Thus the tin or lead that is there will follow and leave a firm bed of
a uniform thickness and width. Thus the plates for the aforesaid works are
made.
Other vessels, besides round ones, are made of pewter, such as flasks,
containers for preserves, and saltcellars. These are cast in halves in moulds
made ofwhite tuff, and then fitted together and soldered. With rasps and
scrapers and other cutting tools they are smoothed, polished, and made
beautiful.
Tin is also beaten like gold, and leaves are made ofit as thin as paper.
These are smeared with a gilding composition f and give the color ofgold
to wood or other things that one wishes to appear gilded with little
expense.
THE EIGHTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Practice ofMaking Gold into
Wire and also Silver, Iron, Copper, and Brass. I AM sure you know that it is necessary to draw the gold into wire in
order to make gold cloth, gold embroidery, or gold fihgree work.
Just as it is beaten to form leaffor ornamenting pictures, so also can
gold be drawn easily. The same is done with silver and tin, and I believe
it could also be done with iron, copper, and brass. Although brass is not so
* A description and excllent illustration of this process of casting plates on an inclined
bed is given by Saloman de Caus in Les raisons des forces mouvants . . Livre III, traitant
de la fabrique des argues (Paris, 1624). A rolling mill for the plates is also shown. Most
later descriptions ofthe casting oflead sheets make the bed horizontal and the crosspiece
a mere skimmer.
I A varnish colored yellow with saffron or otherwise.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 378
soft as the others, it is seen to spread out and become thin by much ham¬
mering, and, because it has a shadow ofresemblance to the color of gold,
those thin and resonant leaves are made from it that are commonly called
tinsel.
In short, wire is drawn of every metal, excepting tin and lead, because
ofthe need ofstrong bindings which must enter the fire while bound. It
can be made in any thinness and length that the craftsman wishes, espe¬
cially that which is made of gold and silver and which is so long and thin
that it is woven into cloth for dressesjust like linen and wool, and is em¬
broidered in the company ofsilk with no distinction.
Goldsmiths also draw gold into wire to make the ornamentation of
their works easy and more attractive. These works, brought together and
soldered well, are those which are commonly called filigree, whether they
be ofsilver or gold. Brass and steel, which [ispt'] are stronger things, are
also drawn into wires to make strings for musical instruments, as fine or as
thick as pleases the one who uses them. To sum up, I do not know that
there is in aU this work anything notable but a certain experience and
great patience.
In this, two procedures are followed. One is drawing with a heavy
capstan with a windlass, and the other is with a httle drum worked by
hand, after having first reduced the bar under the hammer as round and as
long as possible. Then it must be annealed and, when annealed, it is usually
taken to a small horizontal windlass fitted into a frame, or to [a machine]
with the force of a screw, or else a large windlass pivoted vertically. On
any ofthese or other drawing machines the steel drawplates are arranged
in firmly fixed blocks ofwood. The plates are a hAfpalmo long with sev¬
eral rows ofholes ofsuccessive sizes. In addition, a pair oflarge tongs with
flat, serrated mouths and open legs are needed. These should be held by a
stirrup-shaped iron ring which has a hook at the foot to which is attached
the end of a belt or rope, the rest of which is wrapped around the small
windlass or the large one by turning. In this way the tongs close when you
pull them and in that instant take hold ofthe tip ofthe ends ofthe gold or
silver wire, which has been well greased with new wax and put by the
craftsman into one ofthose holes ofthe drawplate. Then by turning the
levers ofthese instruments with the force ofmen, the httle bars ofthe said
metals are pulled and caused to pass through all the holes ofthe drawplate
one by one.
Since the large instruments do not serve well when the wire has been
CHAPTER 8 WIRE DRAWING 379
reduced to a certain point, two drums are pivoted horizontally on a
bench and the drawplate is fixed between these two, with httle holes of
successive sizes so as to make the wire ever finer. By turning one of these
drums the desired quantity of wire is wound, passed through the draw￾plate, and attached to the other roller. The plate is reversed and the wire
put in another hole. Thus, from one hole to another, turning now one
dru^ and now the other, the wire is made to become very fine, always
Figure 72. Wire drawing with capstan, windlass, and drums.
keeping it properly taut so that it may not tangle. When it has been made
thus, it is put on other spools. Remember that while you are working it
you must always keep it greased with new wax, for besides easing its pas¬
sage through the holes, this also keeps its color yellow and beautiful.
Finally, in my opinion, this art consists oftwo things. One is in prepar¬
ing the drawplates well so that their holes may be kept round. They
should be ofgood and very fine steel. The other is that the gold and silver
that you wish to draw be fine, of a soft nature, and that it be kept well
annealed to the degree where it can be put on the drum by hand at the
start. This method is also followed in drawing every other metal, that is,
steel, brass, iron, and copper, but I shall tell you more of iron in detail
farther on.
[140] Concerning this drawing ofgold and silver I wish to tell you how
it is customary to proceed today in almost all works in order to effect a
saving of the quantity of gold that would enter the materials that are
woven, or in order to alter it for fraud. This wire is also fabricated so that
380 PIROTECHNIA book ix
it appears to be all fine gold and actually is almost all silver, for the weight
ofonly one ducat offme gold is put in every pound; and some, desirous of
greater fraud, make the core not even offine silver but ofcopper, and gild
it. Briefly, to do this a cast bar ofcopper or fine silver is made, then beaten
and made round by the hammer. It should be three-quarters of a braccio
long or less. After being well filed and cleaned, a covering offine ham¬
mered gold is soldered over it (or ifit is copper you can make this coyer￾Figure 73. Drawing heavy wire by means ofwater power.
ing ofsilver) in that quantity by weight that you wish to put on. Solder
it on a little furnace with charcoal and with flames ofelder, almost bring¬
ing it to a melt before rubbing it with a dry stick, as is customary, or with
chalcedony or bloodstone so that the applied covering may spread out all
over it and everywhere come in contact with the thing with which it is to
be soldered. Then it is cooled, annealed again, hammered thin, and it is
ready to be put in the drawplate so that you may proceed as I told you
above. Certainly ifit is not done for fraud, this process is a beautiful thing
in this art and worthy ofgreat consideration, especially since the gold that
is applied thins out over the thing to which it is soldered and never reveals
it on the outside. The wire may be drawn out so fine that the eye can
scarcely perceive it, yet it is always very well gilded all over.
This is all concerning the making ofwire in which gold or silver is in¬
volved, and that of all the others except heavy iron is included in the one
demonstrated here. For iron a water-wheel mechanism is built. At the end
ofa journal there is a bent iron with a ring that has a hook to which a band
CHAPTER 9 SPUN GOLD 381
is attached with a shp knot. A short distance away a block ofwood with
the drawplate is fixed in the ground. Between the block and the wheel a
pit is made in the ground to the depth of a man’s knee. The operator
stands in this pit with a pair of[1401'] large tongs with an iron stirrup,
attached to the band, which holds the legs ofthe tongs so that they close
when it is pulled and open when it is released. Letting the water run the
wh eel, the man, who has tied the band in the middle ofthe bent axle, lets
himself be drawn backwards and then pushes forward. His only care is to
seize with the jaws of the tongs the end of the wire that issues from the
drawplate with every return that he makes. He sits in the said pit on a
board attached at the ends to a beam with two long irons which hold him
swinging, so that he moves back and forth as the wheel pushes or pulls and
can take hold with the tongs. With this construction iron can be drawn
out to any desired length and thickness, if it is amiealed often, and also
gold, silver, and copper.
In addition to this method, I have seen iron drawn out without a water¬
wheel mechanism. This other way used horizontal drums, as I told you is
done with gold, but for this it is necessary to have the iron very greatly
thinned and well annealed. The same could be done with a large wheel
for turning it, and if one did not have water it could be done with the
motion of a reel or with a horse or man who could move it by walking
inside, or with counterweights or other levers that have force. Let what
has been told you ofthis art suffice.
THE NINTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Method ofPreparing Goldfor Spinning. IN addition to the gold and silver that is drawn, a certain kind is also
prepared that is called spun; not that it is spun as the word says, but
because a linen thread is covered with it so that it seems a spun thing,
and it is called spun silver or gold.
To make this, a desired quantity of fine cupeled silver is taken—the
batch used is customarily [141] fifteen pounds. A square bar is made with
this, a braccio or more long. Then the quantity ofgold that you wish to put
on is taken, that is, a ducat for every pound, and of this another bar is
made, sufficiently thin, long, and wide exactly to cover on one side the
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 382
silver bar that you made. These are laid together and bound and then put
on a little furnace of charcoal. By blowing on it, the bars are made to
solder together and to unite very well all over as they are rubbed with a
greased stick of well-dried elder. When the gold and silver are well sol¬
dered, the bar is hammered on a flat anvil and elongated. It is doubled over
in several folds, turning the gold sides against each other. Then it is ham￾Figure 74. Goldbeaters at work on a duplex plate of gold and silver.
mered with a hammer with a very flat head until it is brought to the
condition of thinness that you wish, and this is almost that of gold leaf.
Then, when it has been cut square and prepared in this way, women
(who are much more patient than men) cut it into narrow strips with a
long, flexible, and sharp pair of scissors that are as long as the strip of
gilded silver. These strips are of such width that, when wound with a
spindle wheel or in some other way on a thin or thick linen thread, they
will be very exact and, without any excess, will cover the thread when the
cut edges come together. Thus, when this thread has first been dyed a
yellow color with saffron, it is diligently spun according to the desire of
the masters or the knowledge ofthe women. In addition the gold cover¬
ing on the thread is made as uniform as possible, and true. The goldbeater
sees that it retains in hammering a beautiful shining yellow color.
This is the method used in making spun gold.
CHAPTER 10 RECOVERY OF GOLD 383
[hip] the tenth chapter
How Silver and Every Other Metal That is Gilded
with Gold Leafor Amalgam is Freedfrom Gold.
A VERY great profit is derived from removing the gilding and retriev￾ing gold, without destroying the works of silver or other metal.
jL ^ If this method did not exist, the greater part of the gold that is
put on certain works would be lost. Even though you might think to
scrape it offpatiently with a sharp scraper, ifit had been drawn with draw￾plates, or ifit were at the bottom of objects where the scraper could not
enter easily, it would be utterly in vain.
Therefore, I find that to do this it is necessary to use one of three
methods. The first is when it is found on a thin object. Take a large
crucible, fill it with mercury, and heat it on a little furnace. When you see
that it begins to boil and simmer, put your work in it and stir it around,
shaking and rubbing it well in this, and finally rub it with a scratching
tool until you see that the mercury has drunk up and absorbed all the gold.
Then, having done this, take the said mercury and pass it through an un¬
tanned leather purse, and in the bottom ofthis you will find all the gold
like sand. Put this in the bottom of a crucible or in something else over a
charcoal fire and evaporate it.
Ifthe objects are of a thicker form the gilding is removed from them in
another way, by covering them with powdered sulphur and lighting a fire
on them. When you see them burning well with the fire all around, beat
them in a clean bowl of wood or something else and collect everything
that separates with the sulphur from the work; this will be gold in the
form of a leaf wherever it has been touched by the fire. The gold is then
extracted from this burned sulphur by purifying it in a cupeling hearth
with lead.
The third method is to touch the gold that you wish to take off the
works with an aqua fords made from saltpeter, rock alum, vitriol, sal
ammoniac, and some verdigris.* This acid dissolves and eats the gold by
virtue ofits corrosive power. Having thus touched the gold with this acid
and having saturated the latter with a quantity ofgold, put it in a cucurbit
and evaporate it over a Httle furnace as is done with silver, collecting the
acid and the spirits ifyou wish.
* The distillation ofthis mixture would, of course, produce aqua regia.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 384
These are the methods of removing gilding. One who buys gilded
silver and engages in this art derives great profit therefrom, since he has
less work than in parting.
[142] THE ELEVENTH CHAPTER
The Method ofExtracting Every Particle ofSilver or
Gold from Slags of Ores; or Sweepings of Mints,
Goldbeaters, and Goldsmiths; Also that
Gontained in Gertain Ores.
A USEFUL and very ingenious idea was surely that ofthe inventor of
a short way of extracting gold and silver from the sweepings of
JL all those arts that handle them as well as every particle that
smelters of ores might have left in the slags, and also that in some ores
themselves. This is done without using great labor in smelting but by the
sole means and virtue of mercury. To do this, first make a large bricked
pan ofstone or wood and arrange a millstone inside which rotates in the
hollow of this pan like that of a flour mill. In the hollow of the pan put
some ofyour material containing gold after it has been crushed well in a
mortar and then washed and dried. Grind it in the said mill, moistening it
meanwhile with vinegar or water in which sublimate, verdigris, and com¬
mon salt have been dissolved. Then enough mercury to cover these
materials is poured over them. They are agitated inside for an hour or
two, by turning the mill either by hand or with a horse, depending on the
device that you have arranged. Remember that the more the mercury and
the material are rubbed together in the mill the more it can be beheved
that the mercury absorbs the substance that the materials contain. Finally,
thus prepared, the mercury is separated from the earthiness with a sieve or
by washing and thus the mercury is retrieved. Then, make it rise with a
httle cucurbit or pass it through a purse and there will remain at the bot¬
tom the gold, silver, copper, or whatever metal you placed in the pan
under the millstone to be ground.
Wishing to know this secret, I gave to the one who taught it to me a
ring with a diamond worth twenty-five ducats, and I also pledged myself
to give him the eighth part of whatever profit I should gain from this
CHAPTER 12 CASTING METAL MIRRORS 385
operation. This I wished to tell you, not in order that you would repay
me for teaching it to you, but in order that you should esteem and value it
so much more.
Figure 75. Amalgamation mills for treating sweepings, etc.
[1421^] THE TWELFTH CHAPTER
The Procedure and Method ofMaking the Mirrors
That Are Commonly Called Spheres. SINCE you have asked me many times in particular how those mir¬
rors are made that are commonly called spheres,* and even though I
have told you at other times, I do not wish to omit writing of it
here again in detail, so that you may have as complete information as I can
give you, both in order to satisfy you fully and because it belongs among
the subdivisions ofthe subject that I have proposed.
Concerning this, I first tell you that it was an ancient discovery, and in
those times as today was celebrated, and worthily so. For the effects these
mirrors produce are miraculous things incomprehensible to me, and the
more I think about it the more I am bedazzled with wonder, nor do I
know how to explain by theory of perspective the causes demonstrated
by their effects. Marvelous indeed is the beauty oftheir shining clearness,
but much more so is the fact that (according to the shape that the crafts¬
man has chosen to give them) they reflect back the shadow ofthe things
* spere; i.e., concave mirrors or burning glasses. The word is also often applied to
common hand mirrors.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 386
presented to them, proportioned in size and color in such a way as to ap¬
pear to the sight to be either the very objects themselves or a miraculous
artifice. For it is granted to everyone to be able to make one or more
images with these as he wishes, either large or small, which portray
exactly the desired objects themselves, and he can make many of them
appear in a single one at the same time. Also, if desired, the object can be
made to appear to have changed its natural form and to show itself con¬
siderably larger than it actually is.
Ofthese, first the flat ones are made which depict the object exactly as
it appears; the convex ones are made in order to depict it smaller; and the
concave ones in order to show it larger. The more each one is reduced to
the perfection ofits shape, the more it produces the effects for which it is
made. Mirrors are also made embossed at various intervals so that they
may show greater varieties. Round, columnar, and pyramidal ones are
also made as Vitello and Celius write, in speaking ofancient mirrors back
to the time ofAugustus. Among these, they say, one mirror was made by
a master which showed men in the form of giants and in which one single
finger appeared thicker and longer than was the whole arm of him who
showed it. They say also that some are made which show the image of
distant objects and not that of those near by. Others do not themselves ^
show the images but project them into the distant air like ghosts. They^
also write of many kinds of effects of these mirrors which are hard for
anyone to believe who did not see them. But it is easier to understand the
causes ofthese that are seen nowadays, like those that, contrary to the cus¬
tom of mirrors, show the right side in the place of the left, although it
cannot be seen, or those that [143] show the image reversed and all upside
down when the object approaches upright. Indeed, considering the effect
of the arrangement of shapes, you can believe what they say and a little
more, for I remember that I once saw some that showed the shadow of
two objects, one behind the other, although there was but one object. I
thought about this and saw by experiment, without understanding the
reason, that the shadow ofone object struck into the other. Further, I saw
an object incomparably larger than the mirror occupy it in such a way
that a clear space remained around it and made a separation and limit at its
finished ends.
But who, even though he understood the reason therefor, would ever
be the one to say, unless he saw it, that the rays ofthe sun could be taken
and concentrated with such strength that they would kindle fire in com-
CHAPTER 12 CASTING METAL MIRRORS 387
bustible things? This is done with one of these mirrors made concave,
which by virtue ofits shape causes the reflections ofthese rays to unite in
a focus, as is seen. It has a virtue almost similar to the point of a pyramid,
so that where the peak ofits power strikes it multiplies the strength m such
a way that, whether near or afar, it introduces a lively flame—an effect
surely marvelous and of great importance.
I remember that I was in Venice with a German gentleman, a good
friend of mine and a man of very great intelligence, and while speaking
together ofmany other things, we started to discuss the effects ofmirrors,
concerning which he told me a great deal. Among other things, he said
that he had made one almost half a hraccio across, which extended the
clear rays ofits brightness more than a quarter of a German league when
he caught the sun with it. One day, when for amusement he was standing
in a window to watch a review of armed men in the city of Ulm, he bore
with the sphere of his mirror for a quarter of an hour on the back ofthe
shoulder armor ofone ofthose soldiers. This not only caused so much heat
that it became almost unbearable to the soldier, but it inflamed so that it
kindled his jacket underneath and burned it for him, cooking his flesh to
his very great torment. Since he did not understand who caused this, he
said that God had miraculously sent that fire on him for his great sins.
My friend also told me that with the same mirror he had often melted a
gold ducat with the rays of the sun. This was held with a small pair of
tongs and it melted in less than a quarter of an hour, as ifit had been of
lead or wax. He also told me that he had heard that there was in Germany
a master who made mirrors ofsuch a kind that when their sphere struck
hving beings it not only burned their sight but was a deadly poison to them.
The fame still endures of a mirror which is said to have been in Tunis in
ancient times. This was so clear that, by turning it toward the gate of
Goleta from the top of the fortress, one could make out all the ships
that had come there and all the people who were with the ships and in
what style and color they were dressed.
I surely believe that the artists’ process of perspective and its laws were
discovered with mirrors. It also seems to me that [1431^] the theories of
vision ofAristotle and Plato* become more confused in explanation. For
* Aristotle believed that light was some sort of activity in a medium. According to
Plato’s theory (a modification of Pythagoras’) vision was due to particles emitted from
the eye uniting with those from the sun and returning to the eye after meeting with a
stream from the object.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 388
we see that it is the mirror that casts the rays and embraces the objects, and
yet, on the other hand, we see the objects appear in the clearness of the
mirror with their own colors and shapesjust as they are shown to the eye.
But let us now cease speaking any longer oftheir effects or ofthe argu¬
ments begun on perspective. They would be tedious and long for us, be¬
cause my intention is only to tell you the method of making them, in
order that what most masters hold as a very great secret may be manifest
to you. In the search for this many proceed in various ways, from one
experiment to another. With the ancient method it was customary to
make the composition for them of fine metal for making bells, that is,
three-quarters ofcopper and one oftin, and in order to make it somewhat
lighter in color they added an eighteenth part ofantimony. Some added a
twenty-fourth part offme silver. The more ofthis that is put in the better
and more dense they become. In addition to this, I have seen them made of
various compositions in attempts to make them good.
But nowadays most ofthe masters who make them take three parts of
tin and one of copper, and melt these together.* When they are melted,
for every pound of this material, they throw in one ounce of tartar and
half an ounce of powdered arsenic, and let them fume and melt and in¬
corporate well. Then they cast this into an ingot or other mould. Next
they make the moulds from large or small slabs oftuff, depending on how
they wish them made. These moulds are very flat, three dita thick, and, if
the masters do not wish to recess the thickness, they put between the two
slabs a piece ofiron ofthe size and thickness they wish the mirror to be.
Alternatively they have one made oflead or wood or something else, and
they mould it in powder or vine ashes, in frames or in two wooden boxes.
The moulds are dried ofevery moistness and, when dry, are smoked with
a tallow candle or turpentine soot and heated as well as possible from the
bottom. They are cast while hot after the material has been very well
melted in a wind furnace. Take care that they do not feel the slightest
moisture or any cold, .because in cooling they would either come out
broken or all full ofminute pores which would spoil them entirely when
they are smoothed on the wheel, and they would not be good.
Now, when these have been cast and slowly cooled, they are taken from
the mould and stuck to a piece offlat board with a little fresh liquid plaster
of Paris, or with pitch or some other glue that is easily detached. Then
* Note that this is a tin-rich composition, not the usual speculum metal (25 to 30 per
cent tin, balance copper), which is mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
CHAPTER 12 CASTING METAL MIRRORS 389
they are made flat, and the skin made in casting is removed on a wheel that
is turned with water or by hand, or with a very smooth bobbin, or on a
large piece of millstone, or by rubbing with coarse sand and water on a
walnut board. Take care not to work them always in one direction, but
by turning them proceed now from one side and now from the other, so
as to make all the directions come out flat and corresponding one with
another. If you did not do this it would make the image of the object
either long [144] or wide or narrow, and would not represent the truth,
for in those that the stone makes convex the object is shown smaller, and
ifconcave, larger, or they show it upside down and of a strange shape.
Ifyou wish to do this well, you must first take great care that the mir¬
rors are of a good composition and cast very flat, and that they are uni¬
formly dense in every part. The piece ofmillstone on which they are flat¬
tened, and onwhich is removed that firstskin that I told you casting makes,
should be very flat. Furthermore, as I have also told you, you should not
continue to rub long in one direction.
At the end, when these have been flattened and well cleaned on the
wheel, those scratches made by the coarse sand or the millstone are
removed with very fine emery or with powdered pumice put on a
woolen cloth which is the polisher, held very firmly stretched on a board.
It is dusted with calcined and finely sifted tin, or with tripoli or ochre. Any
ofthese will serve, but the calcined tin is better than anything else. Rub it
well on this, and not many strokes will have passed before you begin to
see clearly the shadow of objects. The longer you continue to rub, the
more they will become clear, beautiful, and lasting.
After having done this, detach the mirror skillfully from the board so as
not to break it, and place it in a wooden frame with whatever decorations
you wish. It is important to have a cover at the top to protect it from the
foggy, moist air. For ifthis touches mirrors it forms a little veil over them
which darkens their brightness so that they can no longer show the ap¬
pearance ofthe objects, ifit be not removed anew. This is the whole pro¬
cedure that is followed in making such mirrors.
Now, having told you the rule for flat mirrors, it seems to me that I
should tell you ofthe concave ones, hke those that produce certain notable
and extraordinary effects; first, how their patterns must be proportioned
in order to make them powerful, and when these are proportioned and
made, how they are moulded, and then how cast, cleaned, and poHshed.
The excellent mathematician Vitello writes at length on their proportions.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 390
and, among contemporaries, the German Albrecht Diirer describes them
in his books on architecture. Further, I also remember what my friend the
German gentleman mentioned above told me that he had done to his.
Having collected their procedure from all these, I find that a circumfer¬
ence is made ofone or two hraccia in diameter and then the chord ofan arc
is stretched corresponding to the size ofthe mirror you wish to make. The
arc that results is the concavity that the mirror is to have and must be
made in its fuU size and concavity in wood or lead of the thickness that
you wish, either round or square as desired. It is moulded in soft clay in
halves, or in powder or with ashes. Then, when they are dried [1441'] and
well prepared, the moulds should be cast with the aforesaid composition
or something else. Then they are glued to the axle of a wheel similar to
that for working pewter, or on a potter’s wheel, and they are polished by
turning with a millstone, sand, and water. All those parts that appear
thick are leveled off with a piece of willow wood or with pumice and
they are given the brightness oftheir luster with a ball ofwool cloth or of
untanned leather tied to a piece of wood, and dressed with calcined tin,
tripoli, or ochre. In this way they are finished.
A doubt is born in me when I wonder at this point whether the effect
that they produce ofigniting fire in things comes from the material when
adapted to the shape for showing the result. For if a mirror were made of
wood, clay, lead, or copper, with its proportion adapted to seizing the
rays of the sun like one of metal, it would not hght the fire even if you
should hold it for a month in the sphere ofthe sun. Therefore so far as is
evident, this virtue depends on both the shape and the brilhance, and
therefore ajewel, a piece ofburnished steel, or a piece ofglass would do it.
Just as I once saw it done with a pair ofspectacles, so an earthen vessel well
glazed and reduced to the shape of a mirror should also do it, in my opin¬
ion, and I have also seen it done with the glass mirrors that come from
Germany.
In this discourse on mirrors, I should be very happy to be aided by some
excellent man ofintelligence, who would satisfy not only you, but me, in
regard to theory as well as practice.
CHAPTER 13 MAKING CRUCIBLES 391
THE THIRTEENTH CHAPTER
How Very Good Small Crucibles Are Made, and Small
Shellsfor Melting All Kinds ofMetals. SINCE I promised you above when speaking of the melting of
metals to teach you to make small crucibles and shells for melting, I
do not wish to fail in my promise. For, in truth, since they are in¬
struments that are much used for this procedure, they increase the work if
they are not good, and often cause great extra expense as well as necessi¬
tating repetition ofthe work. Ifthey are good they save everything.
Therefore, if you have to make them, do it so that they are greatly
aided by art. It is first necessary to have the clay of a good nature, that is,
resistant to the force ofthe fire by its own natural virtue, either when it is
lean or when its viscousness is mixed with much talc, and whether it is
yellow or white. This should be well freed from small stones and beaten
well with an iron, and then thoroughly mixed by hand. With this should
be mixed an eighth part offinely ground and sifted iron scale,* and also
some [145] young ram’s-hom ashes. These things should be well mixed
together by hand and by beating them. If this clay should not be strong
enough by itself, it is mixed with another lean clay, with crushed peperino,
flintstone, or some other stone that in yourjudgment seems to be arid and
resistant.
Crucibles are worked on a low potter’s wheel turned by hand, or on a
high one turned by foot,Just as plates are made. Both large and small ones
are made. Most of them are given a triangular shape at the mouth, and
the shells have a kind of spout for ease in pouring out the metal. This
done they are well dried, and baked in furnaces like pots or other vessels.
At the end, when they have been thus made they are used for melts.
* The iron scale is a worthless addition and would ruin the refractoriness of the clay.
392 PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX
THE FOURTEENTH CHAPTER
Discourse on the Art ofthe Potter
and Some ofIts Secrets. Having started to tell you of working potter’s clay for making
crucibles and shells, the wish came to me to tell you ofthe prac¬
tice of this art also. Although it may seem at first glance to be
outside the order and purpose ofmy writing, he who considers well will
see that it is not unrelated to it but proper, since it is wholly dependent on
the agency and power of fire if it is to be brought to its perfection.
Moreover, the potter’s glazes and colors are all substances of various
metals or impure minerals and therefore belong to fire. Since it is my in¬
tention to treat offire, minerals, and metals for you, I surely should not
have omitted this, particularly because it is a necessary art which enriches
and is greatly praised both for its ingenuity and its beauty.
The art ofthe potter has two sources as its principal basis. One comes
from the art of design, the other from various alchemical secrets and ele¬
mental mixtures. In regard to these, I fmd that, in my opinion, all this art
depends in the last analysis on four things: on good judgment in general,
and on the art of design so as to be able to make the vessels beautiful and
of good shape, as well as to ornament them with painting; after baking
them well the first and second times, the next thing is to know how to
make and apply the glaze well and to paint them with varied and appro¬
priate colors. The fourth is to see that you have good, fine clay without
small stones or lumps—indeed this is to be considered as the first thing.
Now this that I have called clay is what many call cretaceous earth and
some call argil. It is found and dug up when the masters wish to make use
ofit and is put in a container to be moistened. When it is moistened, it is
beaten on a bench with an iron rod and very well prepared. Mixing it
carefully, every small stone, lump, or other hardness that it contains is
removed and cleaned away.
Then a shaft [1451^] ofiron is fitted as the journal in a large wheel. On
the other end ofthe journal a small wheel is made which forms an instru¬
ment for working that is called a lathe. Having put some clay on this, it is
made to rotate by pushing with one foot, and, by rotating it, vessels are
worked into a pleasing shape and size. Then they are taken off and put on
a board to dry. After drying artificially or naturally they are painted red,
CHAPTER 14 THE POTTER’S ART 393
white, yellow, or in various colors, according to the works that you wish
to make. Ifyou wish them red, it is not necessary to do anything except to
dry and bake them, but ifyou wish to paint them and make them beauti¬
ful, it is necessary to give them a color-coat of white clay when they are
dry, and if you wish to make them white it is advantageous to apply it
before they are entirely dry.
Now in order to bake the vessels prepared in this way, a square furnace
is made, three and a half braccia wide in its enclosure, and five braccia high.
It is closed with a flat vault. Underneath, at the level ofthe ground, a pit is
dug about three braccia deep and a third wide, or half the size of the en¬
closure of the furnace. Above this, as the foundation and bed ofthe fur¬
nace where the works are set, small arches are built as in a barreled vault.
At the sides and at the top the passages for the flames are made within the
thickness ofthe walls. These are three or four quarters of a braccio wide on
each side. They cause the flames to strike the vault and form a reverberator
over the vessels put in the furnace. The furnace made in this way is filled
with all your vessels, arranged in rows so that the pieces are separated
from one another by certain spaces, in order to allow the fire to pass
readily between. They should not touch each other ifit can be avoided so
that they may not stick together when the colors in the glaze run, or
break by bearing together when softened by the fire.
When finally they have been arranged in this way and the front en¬
trance has been bricked up with brick ends and clay (with only two vents
left at the front for the flames and for looking at the works, and two
others on top for the exit ofthe smoke), the fire is put in the lower part of
the pit. Ifthe work is dehcate, clear flames ofbroom or other dry and soft
brushwood are applied for twelve hours; and ifthe work is heavy so that
it seems to require more, fire is given first very slowly and then gradually
increased, not, however, so much that it is too powerful, for it would dis¬
tort the vessels or discolor them. For the first four hours the fire is apphed
gently and it is increased during the other hours until it seems to you to
have brought them to their proper white color, and the glazes and colors
are seen to have run. Then the fire is put out and they are taken out when
cold.
The white clay that is applied first as I told you above is a natural thing
and is only crushed and moistened with water. It is that which, when
baked, forms the foundation for the white.
The white that is applied in order to make the vessels white and on
394 PIROTECHNIA book ix
which painting is done is made of a composition called marzacotta. Take
some ofthat white sand for making glass and potash or burned argol, or
one part oftartar and three ofsand, and put it to bake in a well-covered
pot under the furnace while the vessels are being baked. When you take it
out thus baked, you will find a material as hard as vitrified stone. After
[146] this, take a hundred pounds oflead and twenty pounds of tin and
calcine it in a reverberatory furnace with the force offlames offire. Take
Figure 76. The pottery, showing two forms of potter’s wheel
and the furnace for firing the ware.
the desired quantity of this lead and calcined tin and two-thirds of this
amount of the aforesaid marzacotta, and grind these together finely in a
mill pan with water. When this is very well and finely ground, collect it in
water with a sponge and put it in a large shell to settle. When it has settled,
some ofthe water is removed and then, stirring it when you wish to use
it, proceed to apply it on all your works with a small ladle. Thus made,
you may either leave them white or paint them as you wish.
Remember that the white is more beautiful the more tin it contains, or
calcined lead ifnot tin. And then, whether you wish them to be white or
painted, the artificial colors should be so exact that it is not possible to dis¬
tinguish them by eye from the natural ones. Certainly the clays have a
great influence, one showing the colors more than another; and a great
difference is made by working them too thin or too thick. However, a far
greater difference results from forming them well and in proceeding well
with the fire that bakes them.
Although this is an art that depends on skill, it seems also that chance
CHAPTER 15 LIME AND BRICKS 395
has some part in it. Thus the craftsman sometimes marvels when he
knows that he has used every precaution and sees the results differ. Con¬
cerning this I do not know how to tell you that it proceeds from anything
other than celestial influences, for I believe it is thus with vessels as with
men, especially when I see that, among a large number of pieces in one
baking one or two exceed all the others in beauty, and also among those
made for eating or drinking or other humble services, some are destined
to break. The same happens in the art of clay statues colored with enamels
before they are dry.
In conclusion, the perfection ofthis art depends on the diligence ofthe
master, on good clay, on good colors, and then on the fire. This is all that
I know to tell you ofthis process.
[1461;] THE FIFTEENTH CHAPTER
Concerning the Procedure ofMaking Lime and
Bricks, and Why and How Each of These
Was Discovered. SINCE I told you in the preceding chapter how the potter’s art is fol¬
lowed in practice, now in this following one I wish to tell you how
mortar* and bricks are made, and how and to what purpose they
were discovered, although I know you will answer that you know it, inas¬
much as it is an art known not only to skillful men but also to the unskilled
ones by whom it is practiced, and that bricks and mortar were made and
always will be made for the purpose of building. This I admit, but prob¬
ably everyone does not know it as you do, and you perhaps, do not know
its beginnings, although I remember having told you ofthem. Wishing to
repeat it better now I shall begin with long ago, so that both you and I
may be better satisfied.
Therefore I tell you that you should know that all the arts that men
practice in the world have been learned by them either through the proc¬
ess of reasoning from the principles of natural phenomena, from the
actions of animals, by chance, or when forced either by some necessity or
* calcina. The same term is used indiscriminately for calcine, lime, or mortar. We have
chosen whichever seemed best suited to the context. In many cases the calcine would
have had the nature of a Portland cement rather than a true lime.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 396
by their own teachers. Thus, from any one of these ways, it is to be con¬
cluded that we would know nothing if we had not learned it from
others. I repeat this because I believe it. To convince yourselfthat it is true,
remember what I once told you when we were talking together. This
was that it was found to be a true conjecture that, before the intellect of
our original ancient forefathers awakened and from crude beings they
became men of good judgment with art as their guide, they wandered
through the forests nude, like wild animals, and their dwellings were
naught but leafy branches, tree trunks, underground caves, or masses of
rocks made into caves by Nature, or other similar shelters. Since these
were not sufficient protection against the many assaults they received both
from the harshness ofthe weather and from the ferocity ofanimals, taught
by necessity and fear, they began to build huts of earth and boughs of
trees, to fortify them with rocks, and to close them well. Thus they began
to enjoy convenience as well as safety, and not much later this made them
think that they wanted to add the unnecessary and ornamental. They
were goaded, I believe, by that natural craving of insatiability to desire
ever more than we have and never to be satisfied with what we possess,
and they decided to build their dwellings larger, in different shapes, and
permanent ifthey could—no longer huts, but houses, palaces, castles, and
very large cities.
Therefore they were obliged to think how they could make them and
of what. Seeing that nothing other than earth, stones, and wood offered
itself, they began with these things. Then they saw that earth did not serve
because it [147] softened and became weak with the rains and returned to
dust in the air and sun; wood was apt to catch fire or to decay quickly
with the weather; stones could also not be used, both because ofthe diffi¬
culty of removing them from the hard womb of their mother and also
because oftheir roughness and the strange shapes they had when dug out.
It was found that when dug out, some would not serve without the art of
leveling and reducing them to smoothness, for it was impossible to put
them together one above the other and fix them in stable rows. Therefore,
even when they possessed this art together with iron, they saw that it was
not enough, but some tenacious adhesive was needed that would hold the
component parts of things united together, and thereby make it possible
to reach the height of the edifice and, if possible, to have that perma¬
nence which they were seeking. Therefore they turned their thought
toward the study of natural phenomena to see whether they might per-
CHAPTER 15 LIME AND BRICKS 397
ceive one that would enlighten them so that they could attain their end by
imitating it. Seeing the rocks and their hardness, they began to think about
these and whether in some way they could soften them, and they began to
examine how the art ofNature did this thing, persuading themselves that
if they too should take some ofthose things that she took they could do
the same thing with time and art. This substance would be ofsuch a kind
that it would not only make a binding for parts ofthings, but every struc¬
ture would also become a very hard body of pure stone. With this hope,
they proceeded to seek the possibility of having some of these same ele¬
mental substances that Nature makes use offor composing and engender¬
ing stones. It is very difficult for men to have these things, in my opinion,
and especially to have them in the quantity that would be necessary for
building. But even ifthey had had them, it would have been much more
difficult, I believe, to compound and proportion them together and, when
compounded, to condense them and make them hard. Perhaps recogniz¬
ing the impossibility ofthis, or perhaps because they saw that it could not
be done without long periods oftime, these men despaired of it. There¬
fore, gauging the briefness ofhuman life, they abandoned it and instead of
this way, not without the semblance ofreason, they entered into the way
that alchemists follow today with metals in the production of gold and
silver. As the foundation and primary matter in making their blessed
Stone, they say that they take the substances of both ofthese and prepare
them in such a way that they make use oftheir seminal virtue and vegeta￾bihty in producing and increasing them. In the same way, these men, in
order to make stones and to soften them, or to return them to their first
principles, burned them as do the said alchemists. When they found them
then to be a dry earth, they made a paste ofit with water in order to build.
And trying to do the same with pure earth [clay], they found, to their
astonishment, that instead ofburning up [1471^] it became hard, produced
an effect opposite to that of stones, and became a thing that greatly re¬
sembled stones. Finding both these things in this condition, they first took
the calcine [hme], and when they had built it with the stones, they saw
that the sun or the air had returned it to powder and to its first condition
after they had caused the moisture ofthe water that was in it to evaporate,
so that the stones were forced to fall in ruins since they could not stand by
themselves. Men thought to remedy this with a viscous and cold moist¬
ness which would protect itself from dryness by its natural property, so
that when Nature found it intrinsically moist and disposed to become
PIROTECHNIA BOOK IX 398
Stone it would effect its processes in appropriate periods oftime. Therefore
they mixed with this, in a certain proportion, some kinds ofriver or cave
sand, which, as is seen by experience, have the property ofshrinking and
not drying out, thus holding fast things that are built together so that, as
they continue to harden, it could be hoped that in time they would come
to resemble stones in hardness. Thus they used their composition as an
adhesive that would hold in a united manner fragments and parts ofthings
necessary to the edifice, and even today the same is used in building.
They saw that the other effect that the clay showed was facilitating
the work by the shapes that could be given to it, and also in its great use¬
fulness as a substitute for stones in those places where these could not con¬
veniently be had. Thus they made bricks. In the hght ofits effects the dis¬
covery ofboth these things was truly more divine than human. No other
material could be found more conveniently or in greater quantities that
would change into a thing resembling what they wished to have, espe¬
cially in the hardness that makes it permanent. For surely [structures] take
on much ofthis quahty ifthe bricks are well baked and made ofgood clay,
and if the Hme is also made of limestone or other disposed rock, finally
mixed with pozzuolana or other sand and built in cool places. This stone
is of such kind that even if it is burned it does not lose a certain fine
moisture, resistant to fire by its nature, and it is strengthened when mixed
with its companions, well quenched, and worked in water.
Now, in short, it is necessary to provide for the preparation ofwhich¬
ever of these things you wish to make. In each one, first make a furnace
arranged in such a way that, whichever ofthese fills its body, the fire may
beat so strongly as to introduce its power vigorously and to overcome
their cold and moist nature, making them hot and dry. First, to make
lime, make a round pit in a hillside, digging down in an almost oval shape,
so that its hollow is ofsufficient capacity to hold the quantity you wish.
This is found by measuring with a rule in the same way that one measures
both barrels and other hollow things and makes cubic braccia ofthem. For
it is seen geometrically that each of the aforesaid braccia contains... *
staia. Usually [148] it is customary to make them six braccia high and
about three in width ofthe body.
Now this is filled up to the top with those stones that you have or as
many as you want. But before it is fiUed, arrange at the bottom some of
these stones or others that are more resistant to fire either by size or by
* Lacuna in text.
CHAPTER 15 LIME AND BRICKS 399
nature, and fit them into a vault. Make it strong enough not only to resist
the weight it has to bear at that time, but also so that it may not calcine too
quickly. However, it should not be made so that the exhalation of the
moisture and coldness that the stones contain changes into a wind when
compressed by the heat, and, in attempting to escape, shatters and bursts
the stone, thus causing the vault to fall and cover all that is inside with
debris. Ifthe fire cannot be continued, the masters have to abandon their
work and lose all their labor and expense, for this thing is not good unless
it is burned and baked very well, and this cannot be done without a long
and powerful fire.
Therefore, assuming that this vault has been made resistant, it is neces¬
sary to continue the fire with good, dry wood for seven or eight days if
possible, for the benefit of the pieces at the mouth, depending on the
quality ofthe stones and the season, and also depending on the quahty and
quantity ofthe wood. This stone should necessarily be very well heated. It
should be continued thus until the upper stones lying in the air are very
well heated to a certain light red, and until this place has no fumes nor any
blackness, and then it will be very good lime.
You must know that, if desired, hme is made from all kinds ofstones,
although some melt sooner because of their nature. The best, however,
are those that are easily burned and, when burnt, completely break up
with water, and in the end set and take hold more quickly. In our regions
stones of three kinds are esteemed for producing this effect. The first of
these is limestone, then travertine, and the third limestone* white as
marble. Marble and every other stone also serves, but the best is the one
that is most alive in its nature, the best petrified, and the one that does not
melt nor contain any dead earthiness.
Surely those who were the discoverers of making bricks were worthy
of no less consideration than those who made the first mortar, when one
considers its great effect well, and especially when one sees clay become
hard with fire, after it has been made soft by the admixture of water,
whde the opposite occurs with that which was made of stone. For the
latter, which was hard, becomes fine and powdery ashes in the fire,
while the clay, which was first powdery when without water, becomes
hard and changes into a thing almost like stone when it is put in the fire,
though tliis usually turns every hard thing into powder or softens it.
Therefore, I tell you that this results only from the perfect elemental
* pietra cohmbina.
400 PIROTECHNIA book ix
mixture ofwater and earth done with art. Thus, ifthis earth is ofthe fme
and viscous nature called argillaceous or cretaceous, when it is put in the
fire the watery parts evaporate [1481^] and the subtle and almost airy moist
parts are firmly linked together in fixed elemental mixture with the earthy
ones. Thus, ifthe degree ofpower ofthe fire does not exceed that needed
to loosen their ties and bum them, as it does with stone, your bricks will
become ever harder, even if the moist parts become so joined as to be
Figure 77. Brick and lime kilns.
fusible. Therefore that which benefits Ume in regard to the art ofbuilding
is harmful in this, so that you must be careful not to exceed the limits of
the fire.
The practice ofmaking bricks is so well known that it seems a shame to
write at length ofit here, for the method is understood as soon as the facts
are seen. I am sure you know that a mass of this clay is made, and care
taken that it contains no small stones or lumps, or as few as possible, and
then it is pressed into the brick moulds made like a box ofwood, or into
moulds for roof tiles, tiles, flat bricks, square bricks, or whatever other
kind is necessary. Bricks are moulded by pressing after placing them on a
bench sprinkled with dry sand so that the soft clay may not stick. Then
they are put out in yards to dry in the sun. When dry, they are put in a
furnace similar to the one that you made for lime, but where that was
round this is made square so as to permit filHng the furnace better. It is
higher than it is wide and as large as you wish. Two openings are made
for the fire, each opening with its httle arch, and its vault of raw bricks
CHAPTER 15 LIME AND BRICKS 401
arranged inside so that it may support the load and await the fire. Then,
with the bricks arranged in rows, a steady fire is apphed for seven or eight
days, depending on the quantity and kind of the work that you have put
in the furnace, or until it is all fired well and has become clear and white in
color. Then the fire is left and the bricks are not touched until they are
cold, for many reasons; first, because they cannot be, and then, because
they would break ifthey did not cool very slowly by themselves.
Among the varieties of calcine is plaster of Paris. This is also made of
stone, but not from those ofthe same nature as the ones used for making
Hme. For this, there is a dead-white stone, sometimes very gray. It is suffi¬
cient that the fire heat it in the furnace without burning it, in order to
allow a certain sulphurousness that it contains to evaporate with some of
the moisture, so that it can be made into a paste better. It would not stick
together without this dryness, nor become hard almost at once as it does.
It is baked in a small furnace with little fire, and is crushed into powder
and sifted. Always, only that amount is made into a paste that you wish to
use for moulding, building, or plastering something, because, once hard,
it is good for none ofthese things or for anything else I know of, except
for painters to burn, crush fine, and mix with their glue to spread over
the works that they wish to paint.
Now from this chapter you can understand the methods of making
mortar, bricks, and also plaster ofParis. Even though to advise you better
might require that I should have told you more ofthese things [149] than
I have, you will learn many things by yourself while working and prac¬
ticing it, such as how to make a choice of clays, stones, moulds, furnaces,
seasons, weather, and the like, and it would take too long ifI should wish
to tell you all ofthem.
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[i49] PREFACE TO THE TENTH BOOK
Concerning Artificial Combustible Materials and the
Procedures Followed in Making Those Commonly
Called Fireworks to Be Used in Ojensive and
Defensive Warfare andfor Festivities
on Holidays.
HAVE previously shown you in the Fifth Book the process
of making guns and gun carriages, together with other
preparations and methods ofmoving them. IfI now failed
to show you more about them, it would be as if I had
pointed out only the useless shadow ofa thing, for I did not
show the kinds and arrangement of their supplies or how
the effects for which they are made are achieved. For these reasons I now
wish to tell you, in addition to what I have already said, how saltpeter is
made and the methods ofrefining it well; what it is and how without it
guns and many effects ofviolent and artificial fires would have been dis¬
covered in vain. After this, I also wish to tell you the methods of com¬
pounding the powders for large and small guns, and finally how these are
loaded and discharged.
I also wish to tell you how mines are made, and fire tubes, [1491^] fire
pots, squibs, fireballs, rockets, shells, grapeshot, and other similar devices
for shooting fire in order to burn ships, supplies, bridges, and ramparts, or,
in offense, for firing on batteries. I also wish to teach you to make certain
bronze balls for shooting, which carry fire and break in many pieces when
they hit. For surely, besides being terrifying to the sight, they would be
harmful to armies lined up in battle when they are fighting. Likewise, I
wish to enlighten you as to how artificial fires are made that last long and
are difficult to extinguish. Since these are fine and useful things in wars,
every captain and soldier should give them consideration and know how
to use them when necessary. You will be pleased to have this information
iffor no other reason than that you can teach it to those who take delight
in celebrating holidays with festivities and with fires.
404 PIROTECHNIA BOOK X
THE FIRST CHAPTER
Concerning the Nature ofSaltpeter and the Method
Followed in Making It.
AS I told you in the chapter on salts, saltpeter is a mixture composed of
many substances extracted with fire and water from arid and
A ^ manurial soils, from that growth which exudes from new walls or
from that loosened soil that is found in tombs or uninhabited caves where
the rain cannot enter. It is my belief that it is engendered in these soils
from an airy moisture that is drunk in and absorbed by the earthy dryness.
Considering its effects, I do not know how to decide and say exactly
what the nature ofsaltpeter is. The learned and very wise physicians find
it salty and with a subtle sharpness both in taste and in their medical ex¬
periments. Considering its strong biting qualities, they decide to say that
it is of a hot and dry nature; on the other hand when they see that it is
engendered from the air and that when touched by fire it becomes in¬
flammable and vaporous, and rises with a fearful impetus when mixed in
powder for military guns, it manifestly shows itself to be of a hot and
moist airy nature. And then when they see that it is shining and trans¬
parent with whiteness and is fusible in every fire in a manner correspond¬
ing to a thing of a watery nature, and since it is heavy, it seems that it can
be said to be watery in nature. To this is added the experience oftouch and
of the great cooling action which it has on water in summertime when
wine is to be cooled, and since it crushes and breaks with but little pres¬
sure, it might be thought to be earthy in nature; especially when it is seen
to change into a hard, white stone when burned with an equal amount of
sulphur. Thus it seems that every one of the elemental quahties is pre¬
dominant in it.
Now the ancients called this, or a similar thing, nitrum. [150] Phny, in
Book XXXI of his Natural History, has said that it was a thing not much
different from salt, that doctors do not seem to have yet known its nature,
that it is found in various places, and that the best is found in Macedonia.
But among the moderns and especially in our regions, it is not known to¬
day what it is that Pliny and other writers refer to, since according to the
aforesaid Pliny and other ancient writers it is a natural mineral. Some say
that in place of the natural kind the artificial will serve for the same
medicinal purposes, since it has the same nature and is perhaps more
powerful.
CHAPTER I SALTPETER 405
Now, as I told you above, this saltpeter is extracted from the above￾mentioned manurial soils and from dark places that have stood turned
over and loosened for a long time, provided the rains have not been able
to quench the earthy dryness.* The best and finest of all saltpeters is that
made ofanimal manure transformed into earth in the stables, or in human
latrines unused for a long time. Above aU the largest quantity and the best
saltpeter is extracted from pig dung. This manurial soil, whatever kind it
may be, should be well transformed into a real earth and completely dried
of all moisture; indeed, it should be powdery if you wish it to be good.
Assurance that it contains goodness is gained by tasting with the tongue to
find ifit is biting, and how much so. Ifyou find from this trial that it has a
sufficient biting power so that you decide to work it and you have found a
quantity of it, it is necessary to provide yourself with kettles, furnaces,
vats, or chests, and also with wood, lime, soda ash, or ashes of cerris or
oak, and especially with a large hut or other walled space near water. It is
necessary to have a great deal ofwater as well as much earth, and it must
be convenient to the place. The same is true of every other necessity.
First the little furnaces are made for the kettles, which are placed on top
and arranged as dyers usually arrange theirs. Then one or two stagings are
constructed with beams as long as the whole room and wide enough to
allow casks with the tops knocked out, square chests, tubs, or small tubs to
rest astraddle thereon conveniently up to the number offifty, sixty, or a
hundred, depending on the kettles and the available space. Between each
two of these vessels a large tub is put as a receptacle for the water that
will run through, or a wooden channel is arranged to pass along the
edges just under the bottoms of the tubs that you have put astraddle. Its
end extends so that everything it receives runs into one or two large tubs
which are large enough to contain all the waters that will issue from the
tubs saturated with the substance ofsaltpeter. In the bottom at one side of
these open casks, tubs, or chests, as they may be, you must make with a
large drdl a hole as large as a grossof or somewhat larger, or three or four
small holes. Over this hole put a little thin cloth [1501^] or a covering of
* The method of making saltpeter depends on the production of calcium nitrate by
bacterial decomposition of organic matter in a linty soil and the conversion of this to
potassium nitrate by mixing with wood ashes containing potassium carbonate. The crude
saltpeter obtained by filtering and crystallizing is refined by a second crystallization after
the addition of a little nitric acid to remove excess alkali.
•} The Sienese grosso was a silver coin weighing about 1.63 grams and 21-23 rnm. in
diameter. In value it was ^2 giulio.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 406
broom or straw to hold up the earth in that place and act as a strainer to
the water which is to pass through.
Then, having tested the earth that you wish to work, either by taste or
in some other way to assure yourself that it contains saltpeter, make a
great heap ofit in the middle ofthe room where you are to work. Near
that heap, make another less than halfits size which is composed of two
parts of quicklime and three of cerris or oak ashes, or some other ashes
that give a sharp, strong taste. Then mix these two heaps together very
well and with this composition fill the tubs that you put astraddle up to
within a palmo of the mouth. Or, if you do not wish to mix the earth,
ashes, and lime together, first put a palmo of earth in the bottom of the
tubs, and then another layer of a dito or two ofashes and Hme. In this way,
putting the two things in layer by layer, fill all the casks, tubs, and other
vessels that you have prepared up to within a palmo or half a braccio ofthe
top, as I told you above. Then, through a conduit, fill the rest of the
space that you left with water. Let this penetrate through all the earth
gradually and drain down into the receptacles, or into the channel or
channels which conduct it into one or more large tubs, or wherever you
wish. You will see all the water that you put over the earth run down and
pass through the holes in the bottom. This now carries with it all the sub¬
stance and virtue ofthe saltpeter that was in that earth. Taste it by placing
some ofit on the tongue, and when you find it to be sharp and strongly
salt it will be good, and you will have made it well. Otherwise put it again
on the same earth, or on new. When the first water is sufficiently saturated
with substance, it is well to pour in water again in order to wash the re¬
maining earth better. This second water is collected in another vessel, and
after these a third could also be made in order to have perfectly every final
bit ofthis substance. Do not mix this second water, and even less the third,
with the first, unless perchance it should have the same flavor (which I do
not believe possible), but place them separately in other vessels, for they
are good to pour on the second working ofsubsequent earths. In this way
continue to make and to collect a goodly quantity ofthese waters, taking
care that they are well saturated with this saltpetery substance. When this
does not seem to be of the perfection you wish, pour it again over the
same earth or on other new earths until it satisfies you and until you know
that it is saturated with a great quantity ofsaltpeter.
After you have done this, a furnace is made with one or two large cop¬
per kettles like those used in dyeing, bricked in at the top. These are filled
CHAPTER I SALTPETER 407
two-thirds full with the aforesaid saltpetery water as saturated as possible.
It is [151] boiled very slowly until it is reduced to about a third. Then it is
removed and put to settle in a large covered vat that is closed and fitted
with iron bands, tightened so that it does not leak. When this water has
settled and is very clear, an earthy thick sediment that it contained is
removed, and it is put to boil again in the same or in a different kettle.
Each time it boils, it forms a foam and swells up so much that ifone is not
watchful it sometimes runs over and spills, and much that is good is car¬
ried away. Ifyou wish to prevent this, make a strong lye ofthree-quarters
ofsoda, or ashes of cerris or oak, or of olive-bush ashes (which are per¬
fect), and one-quarter of lime. Further, for every hundred pounds of
water dissolve four pounds ofrock alum. When the kettle boils proceed to
throw in one or two jugfuls ofthis lye at a time, especially when you see
that the saltpeter water rises in foam. When this has been in but a short
time you will see the water subside and become clear and beautiful and of
a bluish color. Boil this until the fine watery parts evaporate and the salt¬
petery parts become thick so that the water congeals when taken out and
put in chests or vats to cool. When the water has been brought to a lesser
quantity, this is done better by removing it and putting it in a smaller
kettle where it is made disposed to congeal. Having tested this water and
seen that it is reduced to the point where it congeals, take it out and put it
in vessels of wood or rough ones of earthenware that are crossed inside
with some sticks ofwood for congealing on. Let it cool and rest well for
three or four days. By decantation, that is by tilting the vessel, or by a
little tube put in the bottom, pour out all the water that has not congealed
and save it to cook again. The saltpeter that you find congealed will be of
a quantity depending on the virtue present in the water or in the earth, but
its clarity and beauty will come from the virtue of the magistery oflye
which is added as it boils and which has the power of cleansing it and
causing it to come out refined at the first cooking. Now, when this has
been removed with a chisel from the sides ofthe vessel where it congealed,
and has been washed with its own water, it is put on boards to drain and
to dry out well from the water.
Ifit seems necessary to you, or iffor some ofyour processes you wish to
have it purer than usual and completely without gross earthiness, without
famess, and without salt (which it must be for making very fine gun¬
powder and aqua fords for parting), or for whatever reason you wish to
make it come out well like this, do it in one of two ways that I shall
4o8 PIROTECHNIA BOOK X
now teach you. The first, and the one most pleasing to me, is with water,
and the second is with fire. With water, it is refined in this way. Take
some ofthe aforesaid magistery made ofhme, ashes, and dissolved alum,
and for every barrel ofwater that you have put in the kettle for dissolving
the saltpeter put [1511^] in four to six jugfuls ofthis lye or of aqua fortis.
Put as much saltpeter into this quantity of prepared water as it seems to
carry in order to liquefy well. Then cause it to dissolve well by boiling it.
When it has raised a foam in boiling, take it out ofthe kettle and put it in
a vat in the bottom ofwhich you have first put four dita ofwell-washed
coarse river sand covered over with a little piece of cloth. Let the water
drain out gradually through a httle hole that you have made in the bottom
into another vat placed underneath as a receptacle. Then again put the
water that issues therefrom to boil in the same or another kettle and cause
the greater part ofthe water that you put in to evaporate. Finally, it must
be boiled until you see it almost aU evaporated, adding a little ofthe afore¬
said aqua fortis from time to time and especially when it swells and raises
foam. Then take this disposed material from the kettles and put it in
chests or other wooden vessels to congeal. If this is a large quantity, you
will find all that will do so congealed in three or four days, and you re¬
move this as you did the other. The water from which it has congealed is
put to boil again to evaporate partly and once more put to congeal. Thus
you proceed from one time to another, until it is all reduced and con¬
gealed. In this way you will have your saltpeter very white and beautiful
and much better than in the first cooking.
Saltpeter is also refined in another way with fire, though with a small
quantity at a time ifyou wish to do it well. This is indeed a quick method
but it is Httle used. It serves to extract the famess from the saltpeter, and it
sends a great deal of earthiness to the bottom; nevertheless the aforesaid
method of cleansing it with water pleases more than this one with fire. *
To do the latter, take a sallet or other vessel ofiron or copper and fill it
with saltpeter. Then a cover is made ofiron or copper or like one ofthose
pot covers made expressly of earthenware, thick enough and arranged so
that you can remove and replace it as you wish. This vessel, well covered
and ready, is put in the middle of a good charcoal fire, and the saltpeter is
* It is hard to see what purpose this method ofrefining serves. Possibly calcium nitrate
is converted to calcium sulphate, insoluble in the fused mass, but only at the loss ofuseful
nitrate radical. Agricola mentions the process, but is, ofcourse, only copying Biringuccio.
Ercker and most later writers do not mention it.
CHAPTER 2 GUNPOWDER 409
melted. When the experienced craftsman beUeves it to be melted, he un¬
covers it and looks at it. Ifit is not well melted, he covers it again and lets
it melt well. When it is well melted, he takes fmely ground sulphur pow¬
der and sprinkles some ofit on top. Ifit does not kindle by itself, he ignites
it and lets it burn until the sulphur is entirely consumed. It burns only the
surface ofthe saltpeter and certain unctuous thick parts ofit. When these
are all burned, it will appear clear and clean, whereupon the artificer will
remove it from the fire and allow it to cool. When it is cold, all your salt¬
peter will be found in one piece in the vessel, white and like marble, and
all the earthiness will be at the bottom. It is a very laudable saltpeter for
making gunpowder, but not for any other purpose.
In these operations with saltpeter [152] the intelligence of man has be¬
come so acute that it has found a way of causing saltpeter to be produced
in soils and in places that did not possess it beforehand. This is done by
dissolving saltpeter in water and wetting the soil with that water. Salt¬
peter is engendered therein when it has been left alone for a certain space
oftime, or rather that which was put there long before multiplies again. It
is certain that ifthe soils already used in making saltpeter are heaped up in
a covered place where the rains do not wash them they can be reworked
within a period offive or six years, when they are found to have regener¬
ated saltpeter and to produce much more than they did the first time.
What I have narrated in this chapter is all that I know about saltpeter to
tell you.
THE SECOND CHAPTER
Concerning the Powder Usedfor Guns and the Methods
ofCompounding and Making It.
A GREAT and incomparable speculation is whether the discovery of
compounding the powder used for guns came to its first inventor
A W from the demons or by chance. With this invention he certainly
far surpassed all men of every age from the creation of the world up to
that day when it was announced by him—men so very learned, indeed
like angels and of divine intellect, powerful in every knowledge and
power. These had not only revived arts and sciences and discovered new
ones with their intellects, but they had information about all natural
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 410
things that have been and are understandable in the world—descending to
the center ofthe earth and ascending to the form ofthe heavens with the
angels, they have penetrated even to God with their intelligence and have
had that true and certain knowledge as if they had been present in the
flesh everywhere—yet among these that thing also was sought which
should demonstrate such greatness of effect, but such a one was never
found, nor indeed did they even come near to it. For in the operation of
this, the most formidable and horrible effects of the elements and of the
heavens are represented, effects with which they often show their strength,
to the excessive harm and injury of man, as when they release violent
thunderbolts or fearful earthquakes. For, as is seen, with their forces they
strike buildings that have been made with artful structures to resist
every violence and, in the end, are conquered by this means with little
resistance. Also, with this means mountains not only open at the desire
and will of men, but turn their very roots upside down. Thus, in short,
there is no earthly thing that is not overcome or greatly injured by the
powerful vigor ofthis. Therefore, as is seen every day, in making various
engines ofmetals [1521^] and other things, this is taken as a force to be used
enclosed inside; and sometimes underground mines are made for naught
else than to be better able to use its harmful effects in the destruction of
men and things.
Therefore, he who considers well will see that this thing made by art is
more harmful to the life of man than the deadly poisons in numerous
animals, herbs, and in so many other things produced by Nature, or than
the very thunderbolts of the sky. This is also much more harmful than
iron extended and made long, sharp, and cutting, as used by all armies in
so many periods for the destruction of life. For all these things are not
without the hope of escape, but with gunpowder it can be said there is no
such hope, not even the slightest.
Ceasing to speak ofthis effect, I shall tell ofthe great astonishment that
is bom in many persons at the fact that this composition in so small a
quantity ofmaterial can produce as it does so sudden and violent an effect.
But he who will set his bark asail by the polestar ofnatural philosophy will
find what many investigators have also found; that is, that the power of
the elements is in the simple parts that the powder is composed of, as in all
other things. But as far as is seen, all are proportioned to a certain subtle
dryness ready to introduce fire easily, and when it has been introduced, to
multiply it in a certain measure which the philosophers have discovered
CHAPTER 2 GUNPOWDER 411
by experiment and have shown in writing, telling us that they know one
part offire occupies the space often parts of air, one of air that often of
water, and one ofwater that often of earth. Therefore, since gunpowder
is a corporeal and earthy thing composed offour elemental powers, when
the fire is introduced into the part of its greatest dryness by means of
sulphur, it makes a great multiplication ofair and fire, producing with the
moisture and subtle earthiness a thick burning vapor. Even if the places
where this is found were a thousand times larger or more, their boundaries
would not be sufficient to contain it. All ofthese elements, struggling in
their nature to overcome each other, become strengthened and change
into a fury and into a great windiness because of the heat and moisture;
and thus, being unable to remain together because oftheir great struggle,
they must necessarily force themselves to come out—the air toward the
air, the fire seeking to rise on high, drawn by its own nature. Also, since
the fire is the superior agent and more powerful than all the others, it con¬
verts them all into itself before they issue from its dominion, and from
this arises the great impetus by which it is necessary either that the thing in
which it is contained burst, or that the weakest part, resisting, yield to it;
since, in guns, this is the ball which is put in, it produces the effects we see
which seem to be miracles to one who does not understand their cause.
There are others who marvel and do not understand from what cause
arises that fearful and great noise which the exit ofthe ball from the gun
produces. Ifthey should also consider this effect as natural as the heavenly
thunderbolt ofNature, they would not wonder at this earthly one made
by art, for in [153] my judgment it seems to me that this effect also pro¬
ceeds from the causes I shall tell you. One of these is the air that is out¬
side the mouth of the gun. This has its body united and resistant by
nature and possesses some incidental coldness and density in its lower part
because ofits nearness to the water and the earth. In contrast with this is
the fire generated in the powder in the gun, very hot and opposed to the
other elemental quahty, and because of its subtlety dissimilar to the air.
Therefore, when the fire multiplied in the confines of the gun forcefully
issues together with the solid, heavy, and dense ball and encounters the
resistant air, it shatters it with the greatest violence as it issues. In making
this break the noise is born almost as thunder and lighming are generated
for the same reason in the middle region of the air, from thick burning
vapors. To these reasons can also be added the sudden disturbance made in
the cold air outside the gun by the fire. That this is the cause of noise is
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 412
clear to one who considers the disturbance that heat makes with cold
when an iron or other red-hot thing is plunged with sudden quickness
into cold water. To this can be added the percussion that the air in the
bore ofthe gun makes when, expelled by the force ofthe fire and by the
ball, it issues forth and encounters the outside air. This tries to enter the
space that the fire makes by its nature; they struggle with each other and
make a noise. Thus, for these reasons, and for no other (since I do not
know how to understand any other), I believe that the noise and great
sound heard in shooting guns arise. Now, if these reasons of mine have
weight with you or with others, I shall be glad to have told them so that
you may have this information, but if they do not have this effect, you
will pardon my meager philosophy, which extends no farther, and accept
my desire to try to give you what I can.
Now leaving these things aside without controversy, I shall come to
the pathway of the practice of compounding and making these gun¬
powders, as I have promised you to do. I find these are made and have to
be made in many kinds, though three simples are the foundation of all,
namely, saltpeter, sulphur, and charcoal. Some proportion these in one
way and others differently. It is also necessary to make powder in accord
with the effects ofthe engines and instruments that it is to be used in, be¬
cause the heavy guns do not require the same kind as the small ones, as
every gunner knows or whosoever uses them. For hand arquebuses and
pistols a common powder is not to be used; for the tongues offire, fire
pots, and balls it should not be fine. One ofthe aforesaid kinds should be
used, appropriate in each case to the instruments that are to be em¬
ployed. For, if you should use that for heavy guns in arquebuses and
pistols, it would throw the ball scarcely ten braccia out ofthe barrel; and
if you should use that made for arquebuses in heavy guns without great
discretion, you might easily break them or spoil them for other uses
[1531^] as I have told you, and there is no doubt that they are not good.
To conclude, if you wish it good, each powder should have three
points. The first is that it be composed ofmaterials that are free from gross
earthiness; the second, that it be finely powdered and its parts well mixed
together; the third, that it be well dried ofevery moisture. Ifit is like this,
whatever it may be, you will always have its effects very strong and pow¬
erful. The real master ofthe differences in this thing is the saltpeter, for on
it, as far as can be seen, all the force depends. Therefore, first see that you
have a quantity ofthis and that it is pure, clean, and powerful in its nature.
CHAPTER 2 GUNPOWDER 413
which is recognized by burning it. For all types of powder the saltpeter
must be of a good kind.
Now in order to make the common powder for heavy guns, take three
parts of refined saltpeter, two of willow charcoal, and one of sulphur.
Everything is incorporated well together by grinding finely and then
dried of all moisture as I have told you. If you wish to make powder for
medium guns, take five parts ofrefined saltpeter, one and a half of char¬
coal, and one of sulphur; these are mixed by grinding finely, and then
granulated and dried.* To make that for arquebuses and pistols, take ten
parts ofsaltpeter, one ofclean hazelnut-twig charcoal, and one ofsulphur;
these are mixed by crushing or milling them very fine and then they are
granulated and dried. In order to make it better, there are some who put
in thirteen and a halfparts ofsaltpeter, two ofcharcoal, and one and a half
ofsulphur, and crushing it all very well they mix it like the others.
But, since these powders are things that ignite very easily when they are
being made, they would not be without danger to the one who makes
them ifhe did not prevent this by moistening. Therefore take care not to
crush them while dry, both to avoid this danger and also because they
crush better. Moisten it with ordinary water to a certain degree of moist¬
ness so that it sticks together when squeezed in the hand. There are some
who moisten it with vinegar and some others with camphorated aqua
vitae in order to strengthen it more. I have always used ordinary water
when I have had it made, so I cannot tell you which ofthese things works
best, and I rely on the experience of those persons. But, to teU you my
opinion, I believe that vinegar or aqua vitae works Httle or no better than
ordinary water in this thing, for, evaporating as they do, I believe it
necessarily results that Httle oftheir substance remains.
There are some who make the charcoal of hazelnut instead ofwillow,
some of grapevine twigs,']' some oflaurel, some ofthe shells ofpine cones,
some of osier twigs of which baskets are made, some of young elder, and
some of reeds. In short, all charcoals that are made of soft wood with
much pith and woods that are thin, young, and without hard knots are
* Whitehorn in liis pirated translation of this chapter here interpolates a useful
description ofthe graining process: “The manner ofcorning all sortes of ponder, is with a
Seeve made, with a thicke skinne of Parchement, full oflittle rounde holes, into whiche
seeve the ponder must bee put, while it is danke, and also a little bowle [ball], that when
you sifte, maie rolle up and downe, upon the clottes of ponder, to breake them, that it
maie come, and runne through the holes ofthe Seeve.”
•j- Follows 1550 and derived editions. The 1540 and 1558 editions read “grape ferment.”
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 414
good for this process. It is made in different ways. In large quantities, it is
made in the way that is used for making ordinary charcoal. One who has
to make a small quantity usually puts the broken twigs [154] in a large
pot or other vessel of earthenware, iron, or copper. This is covered,
sealed, and luted around very well so that it may not breathe in any
part, and fire is made on top of it. This is continued until it is beheved
that the heat has entered well throughout and that the wood that had
been put in is well burned by this heat alone, without forming flames or
coals. Then it is left to cool and the wood will be found to have become
charcoal. Sometimes in order to do it more quickly when I had need of
this charcoal, I have taken the desired quantity of dry, clean twigs and
broken them in pieces and put them in a close heap; I ignited it and
caused it aU to burn well. Then I went sprinkling water over it with a
broom and with the same wet broom scattered it on the fire; and I went
about here and there, removing the burning coals and sprinkling them
with water until all had been quenched. Thus I made enough ofit for my
needs without so many difficulties.
A very useful thing (indeed it is perhaps necessary that I speak to you of
it) is the method of grinding gunpowder in order to make a quantity ofit
with safety and ease. In ancient times, it was customary to grind it like
flour with certain hand mills and millstones, but it was a very dangerous
operation as well as a laborious one. This composition becomes so hot
when rubbed against the stones that it easily produces fire, especially since
all the materials are disposed to do so, in the same way that when two dry
laurel twigs are rubbed together with a little violence, fire appears at once.
For this reason there are some who make it smaller and smash it in mills
similar to a wine press. Some grind it with the usual water machine. Of
all the methods this is the best and safest, and the one that crushes best
and with the least bother and expense. Some who do not have the con¬
venience ofwater do it with an appropriate large wheel that lifts with its
shaft many heavy and strong stamps of dry holm oak, which fall and
strike in various mortars of wood cut out in a beam of oak. Many fix a
bronze bottom in these. There are some who do it by hand with a holm
oak stamp attached to the end of a [flexible] pole with a rope, directly
above a bronze or wooden mortar, and thus it is easily crushed. There are
some others who crush powder in a stone mortar having a somewhat wide
mouth, using a wooden stamp that has a handle similar to a hammer or
mallet. These devices and others that could be made are about all there are
CHAPTER 2 GUNPOWDER 415
for crushing gunpowder, making it fine and incorporating it well to¬
gether.
In order to compound it, it was once customary to weigh each of the
materials separately and then to proceed to crush them together. Then it
occurred to some others to crush each thing by itself, sift it, and then to
compound them. Nowadays as the best and quickest method, take the
quantity of saltpeter that you wish to put in the work and put it in a
kettle with as much [i54f] water as you think will suffice to dissolve it
when it is put on the fire to heat. After it is dissolved, remove and place it
in a firm place on the ground, and put in the suitable quantity ofcharcoal,
in piecesjust as you have it for less trouble, and by stirring mix them with
the said dissolved saltpeter. Then have your sulphur finely ground and
well sifted and proceed to throw it in on top while you stir the charcoal
and saltpeter with a stick, as is done with cheese on macaroni. By stirring
it continually as well as you can, proceed to mix it. Then put the compo¬
sition thus made to dry out somewhat. To make it fine and to incorporate
it you have only to crush the charcoal, and, at the end, having made it fine
and impalpable ifpossible, diligently dry it ofevery trace ofmoisture that
it may contain, and then sift it very well with a very fine sieve. Then,
moistening it again with ordinary water or with some vinegar, force it
through a riddle or sieve to granulate it. Dry it out again so that you can
use it for your needs and, when dried, put it in dry wooden vessels to keep
it. There are many reasons for putting it in high parts ofbuildings that are
little used—if for no other, that it may remain in a dry place.
Good powder is known to experienced men by its color as a first test.
Ifit is very black, it is a sign that there is much charcoal or that it is moist.
When you crumble this on a sheet of paper, it stains it more than it
should. It is rubbed with the finger to see whether it is fine and whether
the little bits ofsulphur can be discerned at all, for they really should not
be seen. A little pinch ofit is also taken with three fingers and put on a
white sheet of paper, forming little piles one or two dita apart. Fire is
applied, and if the powder is good you will see it all join together and
quickly kindle with vigor and yet not burn the sheet ofpaper underneath,
while there will remain as residue no grossness either ofsulphur or ofsalt¬
peter. Ifit does, it shows you that it is poorly mixed, that the saltpeter is
poor and with earthiness, or that the powder is moist; this does not work
well when the gun is fired and is also dangerous. You should know that
wretched powder is money halfthrown away and the one who makes it
4i6 PIROTECHNIA BOOK X
or has it made is greatly at fault, for in need it fails in its effects and brings
great shame to the gunners who use it. Therefore, you must use diHgence
and take care to make it exactly as I have taught you.
There are many who start a he circulating by saying that they make a
powder that does not make a noise when guns are fired with it. This is
impossible for the aforesaid reasons since fire and air are present, and far
from being able to do what they say in artillery, they would not do it in
one of those popguns that children are accustomed to shoot when laurel
berries are ripe. Besides this, other things could be mentioned in which
[155] it is recognized that everything proceeds from the shattering of the
air when they are struck.
There are also many who say that to avoid staining the hands with
black, they know how to make gunpowder white with bulrush or elder
pith instead ofcharcoal. Others make red powder, putting in dry red field
fungus* and others, blue, with wild flowers. Some others say that to make
the powder stronger and more powerful it is useful to put one ounce of
mercury to every pound ofsulphur, adding it gradually when the sulphur
is already in. There are some others who claim to accomphsh the same
result by putting in a quarter ofan ounce ofsal ammoniac for every pound
ofsaltpeter. There are some others who say that charcoal made ofburned
bulrushes or ofburned linen cloth is superior to all other charcoals that can
be used for this effect. And tliis is all that I know to tell you about saltpeter
and gunpowder.
THE THIRD CHAPTER
Concerning the Methods That Are Usedfor Loading
Guns and Making Them Shoot Straight. YOU must know, my Messer Bernardino, that all things in this
world made by art or produced by Nature are made only for their
own specific purpose. Ifthere should be any that perchance should
fail therein, they would be useless and imperfect, and those are in a state of
imperfection that should have it and have not yet arrived at it. Thus, in
short, when you have dug out the ore with so much labor and extractec^
the metals, when you have made from copper (in addition to other
works) guns that are ready for military service and have then put them on
* ruosoli, modern rossola.
CHAPTER 3 LOADING AND SHOOTING GUNS 417
carriages, and when you have also made balls and powder for them, then
ifthey should not arrive at the exercise ofthe purpose toward which your
labors and expense were directed, they could and would be truly among
things that should be called useless and imperfect. Therefore it is necessary
to come to the actual operation ofshooting them. It is impossible to reach
this stage if each ofthe required components is not first perfectly propor¬
tioned to all the others, by taking enough of the powder that you have
previously made so that it may easily lift the weight ofthe ball with the
violence ofits fire and carry it where you aim, and then by seeing that the
gun that is to receive it is such that it can support it without danger of
breaking. It is also necessary that the whole instrument, with the weight
and amount ofthis material fire that you have placed in its body, have a
way and method by which the manifest and active fire can be introduced
through the httle opening so that it may expel with its force the ball laid
on top ofthe [1551^] material fire and that without variation it may strike
forcefully with its blow in the exact place. Therefore, in addition to the
ordinary arrangement, it is necessary for the guns to be straight, both out¬
side and in, well bored, and clean. Then the guns should be set on planks
in the place you wish to put them, so that they can roll and so that they
stand level and tip no more to one side than to the other. Two other
things must also be taken care ofwith skill and experience in this art. One
is to load them, that is, to furnish their vigor and effective power. The
other is to direct them where the ball is to go, which is called putting them
in aim.
In order to load the guns make an instrument which gunners call a load¬
ing ladle. This is like a gutter pipe ofsheet iron or copper, three times as
long as the diameter of the ball. It is bent to correspond exactly to halfthe
circumference of the diameter of the hollow of the gun mouth. This is
fastened at one end to a round piece made like the knob of a flail handle,
with an empty hole at the back where the end of a pole is put as a handle.
At the foot ofthis, on the other end ofthe same pole, another similar piece
is put. The pole with the said sheet-iron ladle full of powder is put in the
gun and carries it to the end. Then, turning the hand over, it is emptied
inside and the powder is struck with the foot of the pole, which presses
and sends it into place. Thus the guns are loaded, with this manner and
method. This ladle is thrust into the powder keg and filled very well, then
placed in the gun and pressed as I have told you above. The first load is
pressed lightly and the same amount of powder is again taken with the
4i8 PIROTECHNIA BOOK X
same ladle, and the process is repeated as before. In short, in two or three
times (according to the fineness and quality of the powder and the ca¬
pacity ofthe ladle) you proceed to put in as much as you see by experience
is equal to the weight ofthe ball, or at least two-thirds ofthis; you may use
as much less as you wish for the safety ofthe gun or economy ofpowder,
but the effect is also weakened in this way. See that your gun is sufficient,
made of a good alloy ofmetal, well cast and ofsuitable thickness and the
bore long enough so that the powder put there is well alight with fire
before the ball has issued. The longer you make this and the more powder
you put in the greater its impetus and the more powerful its vigor will be,
because the force in shooting the gun proceeds from the powder and not
from the gun, as many masters say in order to vaunt certain of their
opinions concerning the chambers and their own dimensions for the bore.
They tell lies bigger than mountains. But let them talk; I remind you in¬
stead to see that the powder is of the kind you wish for the gun, made
with strong and good saltpeter, well crushed, and very well [156] dried
of all moisture.
When the powder has been put in the gun as I have taught you above,
put in a wad made with some hay. Press this in firmly with the rammer at
the end of the ramrod, and then put in the ball without force. Take care
that it is ofsuch a kind that it may fill the space exactly and move easily
through the whole bore. In order that the ball may stay close to the hay
and press the powder, strike it with the ramrod with all your force and
strength. Thus you will have your gun loaded. When one is given as an
example, all are described, especially those that are loaded through the
mouth.
Guns are also loaded in another way, which experts call the cartridge
method. A tube is made of paper folded two or three times and wrapped
on a round piece ofwood as long and thick as you think is required for
your gun, or as you wish. This is closed at the foot and filled with all the
powder that it can contain. Then it is put in the gun with the said ladle
and pushed so hard with the rammer that it bursts and scatters the powder
in the gun. Then the wad ofhay is put in and after that the ball, as you did
in the others. Thus it is loaded, and, in truth, using this method is a very
quick way. For this, a number of these cartridges are kept made up and
also filled. Now use whichever ofthese pleases you most, when you need
it. I wished to tell you of it in detail because I thought you had never
before had any information on it.
CHAPTER 3 LOADING AND SHOOTING GUNS 419
Now when you have the guns thus loaded and ready to be discharged,
you must consider how to direct them and put them in aim so that the ball
may strike exactly in the place designated. You must know that all guns
—both ancient and modern ones, except the mortar—shoot in a straight
line at the desired thing ifthey are made accurately. Now when you wish
to come to this effect, the gun is brought near the loophole, if you are
inside walls or ramparts, otherwise between gabions or without them in
the open. It must be made level, taking care that the gun stands true in its
bed and that the foot agrees with the head. Then you have to consider
with your good judgment the range of your gun and the distance ofthe
thing you wish to strike. In order to be sure ofarriving you have to bring
it as close as possible. Then, while you stand at the foot, sight with the eye
over the flat of the breech and adjust the mouth of the gun exactly in a
straight hne with the thing you wish to hit. In order to see ifyou are sta¬
tioned at a suitable distance (that is, ifthe force ofthe powder is such that
when it is ignited it cannot help causing* the ball to strike the exact place
you have designated unless the ball is hindered by something in issuing) it
is customary to use various instruments for sighting and discerning [1561^]
the straight lines, in addition to natural goodjudgment and the experience
of long practice. First, in order to see whether the gun is exactly level,
either a large or a small common plummet is used, placed at the foot over
the exact center ofthe gun. The sights are made in various ways and they
are made according to opinion, for, though all have the same purpose,
they are made in various shapes. The way in which they are used is to put
them at the foot over the exact center ofthe gun and to sight with one eye
through a httle hole which is made in a small tube. Care is taken that the
line passes over the middle ofthe cornice ofthe mouth and strikes exactly
in the middle ofthe thing that you wish the ball to hit.
The first shot is a trial, both to find the accuracy ofthe gun and to test
the goodness ofthe powder, as well as to make sure ofthe distance so as to
be able to estimate and moderate each ofthese ifnecessary. Ifyou are cer¬
tain that the variation comes from the gun’s not being straight, or not well
bored and clean inside, or from being poorly mounted in the carriage, you
must use your discretion ifyou cannot remedy this at that time; and ifthe
defect comes from the powder, you must change it or add to it for perfec¬
tion or give it enough more so that it serves, although I do not advise this
* Follows 1550 edition.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 420
because ofthe danger ofwearing out the gun and because ofthe reduction
and obstruction made in the space ofthe bore.
Ifit happens to fall short because oftoo great a distance and you cannot
go nearer, it is necessary here to make use ofinstruments and ofjudgment.
First, aiming at the determined mark, and Hfting the mouth ofthe gun to a
measure [i.e., graduation on your instrument] that you have chosen with
judgment, shoot and observe whether the ball arrives or not, or where it
does strike. And in case it should curve the line* and completely lose its
vigor without arriving, you then have to raise the mouth farther so that
the line makes the shape of a larger arc. Making use of this in order to
repeat the same range, note by measure the degrees ofyour sight, which
process gunners usually call giving the elevation,f With this rule and
measure you must thus proceed to raise or lower the gun straight at the
thing you wish to strike, and not at the side, for this makes a great varia¬
tion in the gunner’s art. He is most praised who shoots straight; this comes
from having perfect judgment or a perfect eye, or from having the gun
exactly made by the master and well placed and fitted in its bed. He also
needs to have good powder, an exact ball, and his sighting instrument
well made. For ease, most people usually put a little wax on the middle of
the rim at the mouth and they make a little hole like that of a sight with
the ends oftheir thumbs brought together at the foot ofthe gun, and by
looking through this see the wax and, beyond the wax, the object. Thus,
by raising and lowering they adjust the breech in a straight line with the
mouth and the object. As soon as this is seen, they fix the gun firmly with
two wedges of wood placed [157] underneath. Then they fill the touch￾hole with fine powder and ignite the fire with a pole that has a piece of
lighted rope on the end. Then the guns effect the result that you wish, if
you have known how to arrange that they do so, for the greatest force is
in them.
I also do not wish to omit telling you as a warning that, as long as the
gun is straight, every error made in its operation is yours and not that of
the gun. It is indeed true that guns cannot always be set where you would
wish nor without great skill can you come so near the object that it is
possible to strike it with certainty, and make the ball go as far as the eye or
the desire would wish. However, as I told you above, there are some who
* Early gunners thought that the path of the ball was a straight line terminating in a
circular arc.
{• dark difrancho.
CHAPTER 3 LOADING AND SHOOTING GUNS 421
first begin to give the gun an elevation of one dito, then two, then three,
then four, and sometimes more. In order to keep the shooting straight, a
scale* one palmo long is made ofwood, sheet iron, brass, or copper. This
has many little holes at equal distances along the middle and also along the
exact middle is a fine line along which a string with a lead in the form of a
plummet hangs from the top when desired. To this is attached a stand so
that it can be put to rest firmly over the middle ofthe surface ofthe breech
Figure 78. Loading and aiming guns. In the background are shown a sight
and a gunner’s level. The irregular cylindrical objects in the
center foreground may be paper cartridges.
ofthe gun. One looks through this firmly fixed sight at the first, second,
third, fourth, fifth, tenth, or twelfth hole or any that it is necessary to give
its elevation.
A similar perforated sight is also made, but with fewer holes. This
moves between two edges in a frame similar to the shde that is used on
sash windows, and the degrees are marked on the edges. With this, guns
are adjusted for shooting as with the one previously described. There are
others who put the guns level, seek the middle ofthe summit ofthe breech
and that of the rim, and attach to the mouth with a little wax a bird￾hunter’s cerbottana; through that they sight the object. But this can serve
only those who [do not?] need to give it elevation.
In conclusion, he who wishes to exercise this art well must be young
and strong, have good judgment, good sight, and patience. Although the
* Follows 1550 edition.
422 PIROTECHNIA book x
said instruments aid greatly, they are not essential, and to avoid annoying
you any longer with them I shall cease speaking ofthem. I shall also omit
telling you ofhow the guns can be adjusted by means ofsome marks ob¬
served during the day so that they can shoot accurately in the darkness of
the night when necessary, and of the methods used by our ancients in
shooting those heavy, unwieldy bombards of theirs, since these are no
longer in use. It seems to me that I have told you enough concerning
modem guns and modem methods of using them.
[i57t^] THE FOURTH CHAPTER
Concerning Mines and Underground Arrangements
Which Cause Impregnable Fortresses to Fall in
Ruins by Means ofFire, when Ordnance
Cannot Be Taken There in Any
Other Way. OF no less importance nor less terrifying to consider than the mar¬
velous effects of guns are those produced with fire by powder in
underground mines. These are truly not only similar to fearful
natural earthquakes, but it can perhaps be said that these made by art
surpass the wrath ofthe earth with greater effect. For ifthe latter shakes it
happens that it causes the things on the surface to shake and sometimes to
fall in ruins, but the former not only shakes but always functions and
destroys—surely a marvelous effect which is almost incomprehensible, and
if experience did not demonstrate it, it could scarcely be believed. Who
would say that the mountains, things ofsuch great hardness, would yield
to men, easily opening their bowels? Likewise, one who had not seen it
would say that it was impossible for men to have a way of administering
at will fearful and destructive thunderbolts which are ofsuch a kiud that,
although men make them, they cannot protect themselves against them;
indeed they cannot call themselves safe from the evilness of gunpowder
even in mountains composed ofvery hard stones or in budded structures.
For, as is seen, there is no seemingly impregnable fortress that does not
yield when guns are brought near it. Ifit happens, indeed, that guns can¬
not be brought near to some place because of the harshness of the site.
CHAPTER 4 SUBTERRANEAN MINES 423
clever persistence has taught men to find caves, and where [158] earth was
previously wont to stand, they place artificial powder which, when a
Httle fire is apphed, has the power not only to beat down walls little by
httle, as guns do, but in an instant to hurl the very roots ofthe foundations
ofbuildings into the air where their spires formerly stood.
The first inventor of mines in Italy was surely Francesco di Giorgio
Giorgi, an engineer and very excellent Sienese architect, although this
glory was and is given by those who do not know, as I do, to Captain
Pietro Navarra, who was indeed an executor but not the inventor*ofthat
effect. For it happens in this, as always happens, that the credit for great
things is given to the most prominent. But as I have said, the true inventor
ofit was the aforesaid Francesco, who stayed in Naples with a great salary
because ofhis virtues at the time when the King of Spain took it from the
hands of the King of France,f Now, since the aforesaid captain had re¬
quested his help in the undertaking of seizing the Castel dell’ Ovo near
Naples, he made three of these mines and, when it seemed to him the
right time, he struck suddenly with gunpowder beneath the chapel in the
church ofthe castle. He followed this plan with such effectiveness that he
caused a part of the pile to fall down in ruins in the sea, and with it the
chapel and the major part ofthe Frenchmen who were inside to defend it.
Then, with little opposition, the Spaniards leaped up along the ladder
formed by the ruins and entered inside. This effect was used in many
places later but in none that I know ofwith such destruction. Perhaps this
was a result of the quality of the stone, or perhaps a better arrangement
was made, which has not yet been done in other places.
Now, in order to tell you the procedure and method with which these
things should usually be made (although everyone proceeds according to
his opinion, desire, or ability), you must first understand that this effect
is so much greater the larger the quantity ofpowder that is put in. Further,
the excavation must be firm in a hard place, so that the exhalation ofthe
fire cannot easily issue, since you have sealed it in such a way that the
closure you have made does not open to forces ofthe powder and there¬
fore the fire and air generated in that space have no way ofescaping. Then
you must take care that with their force they cannot find any other way
out.
* 1550 edition.
j- Tliis took place in 1502. Johannsen has interesting notes on the persons and events
described in tins paragraph.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 424
Now, to make the mines this method should be chosen. First, see that
their beginning is distant from the place you wish to damage so that the
defender may not sally out to interfere, so that he may hear or see the
excavation as little as possible, and so that he may not know the place of
certain attack and protect himselffrom it by making some cut or by hmit￾ing himselfto a more restricted fortification or by countermining in such
Figure 79. A subterranean mine, showing “the foundation ofthe
mine disclosed” and “the place of greatest effect.”
a way that the exhalation ofyour fire must pass without effect and aU your
labor be in vain.
These mines are made as small, narrow, and twisting as possible, espe¬
cially near the actual place that you wish to destroy. Exactly under the
aforesaid spot [isSy] dig out a space that is at least four braccia or more
high and two in width, and its bottom surface should lie entirely above
the entrance ofthe mine. In this space put open kegs full of good strong
powder and on a plank between these put still more powder. At the foot
ofthe kegs place a good thick fuse oftwisted cotton that has been boiled
in vinegar, sulphur, and saltpeter, then wrapped and covered well with
good gunpowder, and dried out very well in the sun. Having put this in
its place you should also make a good train of powder and go to the exit
with it. Then having covered this fuse and powder with earthenware or
wooden drainpipes, brick up the entrance very well, putting great pieces
of oak stump across it or other beams so that, with the thick wall and
these, it is as strong as possible in resisting the driving force ofthe fire.
Then having prepared it thus and made the entrance strong, sprinkle the
CHAPTER 5 fire tubes 425
fuse with powder throughout the excavation as far as you wish or accord¬
ing to the desire and safety of whoever is to apply the fire. This done,
when it seems time to follow a stratagem by bringing your defending
opponents over the place where you wish to make the ruin, or whenever
you wish, apply the fire to the train, and according to its operation you
will see what follows.
On this subject I need say nothing more except that if you should
happen to make a mine and should find very soft and poorlyjoined rocks
instead of hard ones, then you must support them with beams that have
holes all along them full of good powder.
To show that they are masters, some men adorn their words when
speaking ofthese things in order to color their Hes better with a thousand
fables. But let them talk, for the perfection of this thing Hes in having
much good powder inside to make a great and strong fire, in having the
space not too large and the entrance very well closed. All the rest is
windy and useless verbiage.
[159] THE FIFTH CHAPTER
How Fire Tubes Should Be Madefor Defending or
Assaulting Batteries or Gates,for Burning
Supplies, orfor Festivals. Fire tubes are commonly made in order to frighten horses or to
harm enemy soldiers, but although fire issues from them, they do
not cause much damage because they cannot be used at a distance. If
you wish to use them, you are not able to approach close to the enemy, for
ifthere is anyone who is afraid, he does not let you approach nor does he
come near you until he sees that they have finished burning. Thus, in
short, the assault with this is one that is seen beforehand, and for which
there is always time to decide on some action in defense. It is indeed true
that they are beautiful things to see and when the name tubes of fire is
heard it terrifies those who do not have a defense ready. When four, six,
or indeed ten or twelve of these are put in the hands of as many coura¬
geous and united men, they are surely good in forcing passage on a
guarded bridge, or in entering or holding a gate, road, or other narrow
place. They serve also for setting fire to dwellings or the enemy’s suppHes,
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 426
carts, bridges, and all those things in the service of the enemy that are
easily set on fire. They would also serve well to lay waste a land. Above
all, they are good in naval battles.
Some are also made not only to vomit fire but to shoot certain balls
which ignite when they issue and burst in the air. I once made some of
these like a gun, which I caused to shoot stone balls able to break any good
thick wooden gate, and they served me admirably for the purpose that I
made them for.
So that you may know how such things are made I wish to teach you
both. The bodies ofthese are made ofwood, although the tubes could be
and indeed are also made ofLombardy iron or ofsheet copper. Make it of
any of these things that you wish, for each will serve you. To do this,
make a wooden tube about one and a half to two hraccia long. This is
sawed in the middle and a channel is cut out in each part, exactly halfthe
diameter and half the circumference of a ball that you have chosen. It
should be as large as those playing balls known as Florentine. At the foot
make a plug of wood to close it, but with a hollow in the middle like a
socket, so that it can be fastened to the end of a pole. Over the whole of
this tube, ifit is of wood, wrap good annealed iron wire, with one wire
lying close against the other, or a thin reinforced string. Ifit is made of
[1591^] sheet it is strengthened with five or six little forged and welded
bands ofiron. If I had to make them, to save expense and to make them
hghter, I would make them of paper, wrapped with several folds, and I
would paste the last folds either with paste or with a glue of hide scrap¬
ings; and for greater strength I would also apply iron wire all over.
Ofwhatever you have made this tube or may wish to, it is fiUed in this
way, unless indeed you wish to fill it with a single composition: First put
four dita of good gunpowder in the bottom, and then put in a httle ball
made oftow or ofcloth rags and filled inside with good fine powder. The
ball has one or two little holes and it is covered with pine resin, sulphur,
and some powder. Then above this put four dita of coarse powder com¬
posed of Grecian pitch, crushed glass, coarse common salt, roughly
crushed saltpeter, and sawdust of dry elm or ground iron scale, and press
it in well with a ramrod. On top of this, then put two dita offine gun¬
powder and press it; on this put another ball made in the same way. Thus,
four dita at a time, proceed to fill the whole inside ofyour tube up to the
mouth. When it has been thus filled, it is covered with a little tallow, or
with a plug ofcork or paper so that the powder may not run out when it
CHAPTER 5 fire tubes 427
is handled. When these tubes have been made in this way, they are put on
the end ofa pike or other long pole and fastened with two nails at the foot.
Then, when you wish to use them, fire is applied through the mouth with
a fuse or with a Httle gunpowder.
The tubes that I told you I once made for shooting stone balls were of
white, dry walnut wood. I made them three hraccia long and their hollow
was large enough for a closed fist to enter. First I had the natural wood
Figure 80. Large fire tubes reinforced with wire and bands, and
a lined wooden tube serving as a light gun.
worked round on the outside in the shape of a gun, thick at the foot and
narrow at the head. Then I had it sawed through the middle and had a
hollow cut out in the middle of each part except for four dita at the foot.
Then I took a strip ofBrescian iron and made a half channel ofit in each
side, and I had it nailed very well with flat-headed studs, size 100.* I had
the place for the powder made with double strips. At the end ofthe foot I
made it pointed like a hollow pyramid, and at this point I made a narrow
little tube of the same strip which projected, spread out like a rivet inside
and outside, to form the entrance for the fire. Then I had the two parts
joined together very well, and I made them tight with good cheese glue
and with nails through the thickness of the wood. Then I fortified them
with five good wide and thick welded bands ofiron, putting three below
from the middle and two at the top. With a heavy smith’s hammer and a
punch I closed them and made them as tight as I could. Then I had the
* hullctte da cento; 100 to the pound?
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 428
balls ofstone made so that they had a clearance of a good thread.* When
these had been made I used them in the service of a friend ofmine. I shot
one nine times and [160] it always resisted and was as effective as a medium¬
sized gun. From the noise it made it might have been actually ofiron or of
bronze. Now this light and portable instrument is useful for stealing a
piece ofground in an unexpected movement, as in approaching and com¬
ing near to a gate and directing four or six ofthem together at the lock or
httle windows, whichever it may have; and if all were fired at once it
would necessarily be opened by this force. This method is much better
than burning the gates when you wish to enter, because it is quicker, more
convenient, and makes less hindrance to those who are to enter than do
the cinders or flames of burning gates. However thick the wood of the
gate may be, and even though it be strengthened with iron strips, it can¬
not resist these fire tubes,f
THE SIXTH CHAPTER
The Method ofMaking Metal Balls Which Burst in
Many Parts,for Shooting on Armies Lined Up in Battle.
P II She good and lofty men of intelligence are constantly discover¬
ers of many beautiful things, because of their kindness or because
JL they are driven by necessity. Either they shorten the method of
making them after they have seen them, or they think how they can be
increased in power or how they can be used for various effects in addition
to the one mtended by the inventor. Certainly all the effects described to
you in this Tenth Book derive from gunpowder. When so many proper¬
ties and so much strength were observed in this, it was thought that by
enclosing it in some strong thing that had the power to resist it, gunpow¬
der would produce a marvelous effect. And thus they made a tube of
bronze or iron [i6of] which they closed with a wooden plug. They ap￾phed fire, and when they saw how forcefully this plug issued they thought
ofmaking one that would come out and strike in order to destroy things.
They made an instrument of bronze or ofiron and put some powder and
a round stone inside, and called it a spingard. Developing then from this.
* vn huon fil di spago la tinette.
I Biringuccio nowhere mentions the petard, soon to become the popular instrument
for breaking down gates.
CHAPTER 6 EXPLOSIVE CANNON BALLS 429
various sons were born, both small and large ones and of various shapes
depending on the opinions or desire ofthe masters or ofthe princes who
had them made.
Not yet satisfied with the great harm that they caused in shooting
stones, they found a way ofmaking balls ofiron, as I have demonstrated.
Not yet satisfied even with these, in order to injure men more than the
aforesaid ones do, the good men ofinteUigence have thought ofmaking
those hollow balls ofmetal, and have given them a way of bursting into
many pieces so that each piece may strike a blow. And whereas, with the
shooting of an ordinary ball with a gun only one arrived among the
people, this ball that breaks in pieces is equivalent to many. Thus they
proceeded to make these hollow balls ofmetal and filled them with strong
powder through a little hole. The fire is introduced with a fuse when they
are shot with a gun or launched in some other way by men. Thus the
powder that is inside ignites on arriving and, since it has no escape, bursts
the ball into many pieces among the enemy.
I have seen two kinds ofthese. One is made hollow merely by casting
in the ordinary way, employing a core of moulding clay made exactly
round with a strickle. Over this a covering is applied oftallow or wax or
the whole thickness is formed ofclay, and this is turned down with an iron
tool to leave as much thickness as you wish it to be in metal, after it has
been moulded in halves in moulding clay or in boxes with river sand
baked for casting in powder, as is done for small bells.
Alternatively, you can do this by making a pattern ofwood or lead and
moulding from that. Likewise you could mould the core with the same
powder in order to do it more quickly. In moulding, make its little iron
pieces project for holding the core in the middle. They could also be
moulded in plaster of Paris and cast in wax to that thickness which you
wish them to be in bronze. To make the core, they could be filled inside
with plaster of Paris, ashes, and liquid clay or burned young ram’s horn.
Now having made your gates and vents and the supports for the core in
whichever one ofthese ways pleases you most, cast them in a brittle mate¬
rial,* that is, copper strongly corrupted with tin, or cast iron. Finally, take
* The necessity for a brittle material is obvious. Whitehorn has a chapter (not taken
from Biringuccio) in which he describes “certaine hollow balls of mettel as bigge as
smalle boules, and a quarter of an ynche thicke, caste in mouldes and made of three
partes of brasse and one of drme: but the brasse ought to be molte before the tynne be
put to it. . . .” {Certain waiesfor orderyng souldicrs . . . , London 1560. Page 34.)
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 430
out the clay of the core through the little hole that you left there, and,
when empty, fill the balls through this hole with fme powder when you
wish to use them. In shooting them, they are shot more forcibly with a
gun or with a ballista and with greater safety for whoever has to shoot
them. In the hole you have left put a fuse of cotton prepared with salt¬
peter, sulphur, and [ 161] gunpowder as I have taught you in another place.
This should be just long enough so that when ignited it may introduce fire
in the powder at the time that you wish. When ignited, the ball will break
in many parts, as you can understand since it is not a material capable of
resistance, and every part spreads out hither and yon, driven with a very
great violence.
The other kind that I have seen was made in this way. First, the one who
made it took some clay on a spindle and gradually fashioned it with a
strickle board to an exact ball, but it was a sixth part smaller than the
thickness he wished. Before this, he had first cast in powder or otherwise
many little squares, curved at the top and sharp with keen edges like the
points of a diamond or the heads of nails for gun-carriage wheels, some¬
what concave on the under surface. He covered the whole ball with these,
one touching the other and all fastened in, and thus he proceeded to fill up
the whole surface of the clay ball. Then he took tallow or wax and
smoothly covered up all the edges of the points. With another larger
strickle he filled m the sixth that was lacking in thickness and made it
exact and round. Having uncovered all the points again so that they might
serve as support for the core, he then made the mould over it. At the end
he did as is customary, which it is not necessary to repeat to you. This man
cast it in a brittle brassy material for greater beauty. Because it was neces¬
sary that a hole be left in one side to permit taking out the core and also
for loading it, he left a hole as large as a giulio.* In the wall ofthis he made
a recess for holding a small collar with a snail-like screw. In this way he
closed the large hole and only a very small hole remained, which was in
the middle ofthe collar to allow the fire to be applied. Then these, like the
other more easily made ones, are freed from clay inside and out and are
used for the effect described and demonstrated to you. The method of
making one will show you how to make a thousand or as many as you
wish.
But to tell you what I think about them. They are fine things to con-
* A silver coin said to be named for PopeJulius II. It was about 26-28 mm. in diameter,
weighing about 3.27 grams. In value it was 1/20 scudo (gold).
CHAPTER 6
431 EXPLOSIVE CANNON BALLS
sider and difficult to make and iftheir effects followed in the manner in¬
tended they would be great. But because of the various obstacles that
arise and because things cannot always be made according to desire, they
often fail in operation. Therefore, in my opinion, guns are more surely
effective with their usual balls which cost less, and are perhaps more hor¬
rible to those whom they are to injure if they are shot frequently in all
directions, straight and obliquely, than those which wish to make many
blows with one. However, all the pieces can be easily separated from each
other according to this plan, and when they do so separate, they are so
many that they would cause a very great massacre, since, for as many
points as you put on the clay core, an equal number is added in filling the
joints between one and the other.
Another kind is also made to be shot with guns. [i6if] They are of
molten iron, cast in two halves, sHghtly hollow and with a little hook to
which is attached a piece of chain which holds them both tied together.
When joined they have the shape of a ball and when shot they spread
apart, thus making an opening where it strikes twice as large as ifit were a
solid ball.
Another kind is also made ofiron, arranged so that it has four wide sec¬
tions from the middle of the circumference almost to the point, held by
four crosspieces which have their play from a pivot put across the foot.
This crosspiece has a spring in the middle and this opens when the ball
issues from the gun into the air. So that you may understand this betterI
have drawn it at the end with the best indications that I could.*
In Germany at the time ofMaximilian I have also seen a ball ofiron cast
on a thick iron rod. This entered an instrument of artillery of a shape
similar to a mortar, split down to just above the powder by two grooves,
one opposite the other. When I saw this I was greatly astonished and I was
told by a gentleman who supervised the ammunition supply for many
guns that the Emperor Maximilian had had it made in order to break
castle gates by shooting with it. He also showed me the things that were
made to be shot with these, and at first I thought he did it as a joke. Then
having seen this done even in arquebus balls by traversing them from side
to side with a dito of thick iron wire and having seen their operation, I
would not have criticized ifthey could have been shot at armies as well as
at gates.
* There is no drawing ofthis. The printer ofthe 1550 edition erred in assuming it to be
Fig. 81, which he places in the text at this point.
432 PIROTECHNIA book x
In conclusion, these are all the kinds ofunusual balls for heavy guns that
I have seen. But, in shooting with the intention ofinjuring many persons,
I have seen some who put river gravel over the powder, or httle squares of
iron cut from thin and thick bars, or the little pieces ofbronze in the shape
ofsmall shot that are formed in the cinders on melting. These served not
only for heavy guns but also for arquebuses, and they are things very
Figure 8i. A battery of guns discharging small fire tubes among cavalry.
suitable for assaulting enemies. Also in order to harm with terror and to
put into disorder a band of infantry, or a cavalry battle, I believe it
would be good to have many guns loaded and prepared in such a way
that there were six or eight tubes ofheavy paper, similar to those used for
rockets, well filled with good powder and well closed. These should have
good, well-made fuses in the holes at their feet. Then over these should be
put a ball ofstone, well pressed and fitted in, with some hay over it, and
fmaUy fire should be applied. Ifit should seem opportune to launch it in a
band ofinfantry in formation or among horses it could not fail to cause
great annoyance to their legs since it is a fire that runs along the ground,
and also endangers kegs ofpowder or barrels ofmunitions wherever they
are found.
CHAPTER 7 TONGUES OF FIRE 433
[162] THE SEVENTH CHAPTER
Methods ofMaking Tongues ofFire to Be Tied on the
Ends ofLances like Squibs. IN order to defend batteries or to make a stratagem at night in making
an assault it is useful to tie certain tubes of paper on wooden forms
to the ends ofthe lances ofthe cavalry, or on the ends ofthe pikes of
infantrymen. These are made in the form of rockets or squibs, half a
braccio or more long, and are full ofcoarse gunpowder in which are mixed
pieces of Grecian pitch, sulphur, grains of common salt, iron filings,
crushed glass, crystalline arsenic, and the like. Their very shape gives a
hold at the foot, and they should be well packed and full. Then, having
put in a good fuse and turned the fire-emitting end toward the enemy
and having tied it well to the lance or pike, at the proper time cause them
to burn as you wish. From the thing made in this way you will see issue a
fearful very hot tongue of fire more than two braccia long, full of ex¬
plosions and horror. This works much better if used when the weather is
mild or when you are aided by the wind. This thing serves very well in
battles at sea as well as in its effects on land.
..
.. 1 ..I'M ...
....IIMiMja
.. -
.--—
Figure 82. Lances and pikes with small fire tubes attached.
434 PIROTECHNIA BOOK X
[i62v] the eighth chapter
The Method ofPreparing Fire Pots and ofMaking
Balls ofIncendiary Composition to
Be Thrown by Hand. There have always been in this world men of such keen intelli¬
gence that with their discourse they have been capable ofinfinite
and various inventions that are as beneficial as they are simultane¬
ously harmful to the human body. Wherefore, from day to day, we see
unfolded before our eyes some of these that greatly astound our minds,
and we remain so stupefied that when we think ofthem we are not able to
control our faculties for some time, both from considering by what
necessity or purpose these men were goaded, as well as from contemplat¬
ing the profound subtlety of their discoveries, which, in truth, are such
that they are awarded the greatest commendation by noble minds. By
following their counsels and with their aid, there have been* some astute
and clever captains who have had certain pots or balls ofearthenware car¬
ried by their infantry, expressly filled with compositions of powder or
other unctuous hquors disposed to ignite easily. When they meet the
enemy in battle and come up close to them, they try to strike vigorously
with these in the first assault in an effort to throw them into disorder and
to make them give way by breaking them up and drawing them out of
formation. The smoke is harmful, but the fire very much more so.
These are made in tliis way. Take the number of vessels that you have
to make—it does not matter whether they are raw or baked as long as they
are well freed from the moisture of the clay—and fill them a httle more
than halffull with coarse gunpowder which has mixed in it pounded Gre¬
cian pitch and at least a third ofcrushed sulphur. Then pourin a covering a
dito thick ofstrained pig fat mixed with powder. This keeps it from falling
out when it is thrown and keeps the fire slower until it reaches the
enemy. When this has been made, open up the pig fat a httle at one side
when you wish to throw it and put in a little fuse or a little good powder
and apply fire, holding it in your hand until you see that the fire has taken
hold well. Then throw it, choosing your time.
A hquid composition is also made in a kettle in which are put pork fat,
petroleum oil, oil ofsulphur, hve sulphur, [163] doubly refmed saltpeter,
* The introductory material up to this point is lacking in the 1540 and 1558 editions.
CHAPTER 8 FIRE POTS 435
aqua vitae, Grecian pitch, turpentine, and some coarse gunpowder. Hav¬
ing liquefied everything well over a fire, stir it thorougUy with a stick so
that it may be well incorporated, and proceed to fill all the pots or vessels
that you have with this composition in the desired amounts. Then put a
layer of good gunpowder over them so that they will ignite easily when
desired, and let them stand. Use them when you wish, throwing them
Figure 83. Fire pots with slings, and incendiary arrows.
with slings, or tied with ropes or iron wire like a whip handle, or in other
ways ofthrowing by hand.
With this same composition you can also fill certain linen cloth sacks.
These are wrapped with ropes and are shaped like balls. They are shot
from iron cerhottana like the balls from fire tubes. You could also smear
this composition on everything that you wish to burn easily, like gates of
earthworks, wooden bridges, carts, munitions, ramparts defending bat¬
teries, and similar things, for it is inflammatory material and, when in¬
flamed, it penetrates and maintains a strong fire. You could also bind this
at the end of the iron on the pikes of foot soldiers by filhng with it a
purselike bag, made for carrying the fire among the enemy or any other
place at which you wish to throw so that it may ignite and bum.
436 PIROTECHNIA BOOK X
THE NINTH CHAPTER
The Manner ofCompounding Various Incendiary
Compositions Which Are Commonly
Called Fireworks. Every dry thing that bums easily and multiphes or maintains fire by
its own intrinsic nature can be put into an incendiary composition
and various effects are produced Some ofthese things are mineral
combinations, bice sulphur or its oil; some others, [1631^] hot, dry, and
subtle substances, like saltpeter; and some are unctuous things, like fats
and oils of any kind; while some serve because of dryness, like pith and
wood. Some ofthese things are natural and some artificial.
But now I set aside the search for these differences in their composition.
This is what I have found among all the ancient and modem things that I
have been able to seek, and first, back in the time ofAlexander the Great.
Marcus Graecus, who was perhaps the inventor or a great experimenter
and practicer ofsuch things, writes ofmany ofthem. I have chosen some
among these, and one* is this: In order to make it, he took Grecian pitch,
alchitran, live sulphur, tartar, sarcocolla, niter, and petroleum oil, one part
of each, and, in addition, a double amount of quicklime. He mixed it all
with oil ofegg yolks. Having put it in a well-covered and closed vessel of
glass or glazed earthenware under warm manure, he left it for a month.
Then, having liquefied it over a slow fire, always keeping the vessel well
closed, he finally put this liquor in hollow sticks, in little pots, or in vessels
expressly made, all with a little fuse fitted in the middle. IfI should have
to do this, I would say that a little gunpowder should be put in, which
should give beginning to the fire so that it would ignite more easily.
I have also found that another fire is made. For this sulphur is taken, or
oil of sulphur ifit is possible to obtain, petroleum oil or some rock oil,
juniper oil, very well-refined saltpeter, and for one part of each of these
five parts ofasphalt; in addition, take goose or duck fat, pure black pitch,
varnish, pulverized dove’s dung, and enough aqua vitae to cover all the
aforesaid things. Then it is put in a glass vessel under warm manure for
* None ofthe 35 recipes in the MS. of Marcus Graecus quoted by Berthelot {Collection
des anciens alchimistes grecs, 1888) agrees exactly with this, although all substances named
by Biringuccio are mentioned in the manuscript, usually in words of the same Arabian
root as those used by our author.
CHAPTER 9 INCENDIARY COMPOSITIONS 437
twenty-five to thirty days, after the mouth has been sealed with some
wax. Then it is put on a slow fire so that it may all incorporate better.
With this composition hollow sticks are then filled or pots and similar
vessels to be thrown by hand. In addition, also, take a ball ofstone with a
ring in the middle to which is attached a rope of one or one and a half
hraccia. On this ball put pieces oftow or linen well soaked with this com¬
position, smearing them well. Then hght the fire, swing it around by
hand until you feel that it has entered its flight with all the force that it
can be given with this motion, and release it. They can also be thrown with
balhstas as the ancients used to do or, ifdesired, with guns as the modems
do. In the latter you can throw not only the ball made ofthis composition
but also one ofstone in which an iron ring is fitted and well fixed. To this
ring is attached one or more pieces of washed and baked rope that has
been very well soaked in this composition. Or ifyou do not wish to attach
ropes, make a httle sack ofthick heavy cloth and fill it with this compo¬
sition and attach it to the stone with the ring [164] described, and shoot it
with whatever instrument pleases you most. By putting the material in a
sack that has the shape of a ball, as above, it can also be thrown with a
sling or with a pike that has a hollowed piece ofwood or iron bands fitted
to the point so as to hold it; as you swing this, the-sack comes out and takes
the path that you intend it to.
Another incendiary composition is made by taking liquid varnish, oil of
hve sulphur, oil ofegg yolks, oil ofturpentine, juniper oil, linseed oil, and
petroleum or rock oil, and further, halfofthe amount ofthe composition
of oils of aqua vitae, and also enough fine powder ofdry laurel to thicken
the whole, with an equal amount ofsaltpeter. All these things are put to¬
gether in a narrow-mouthed vessel of glass or of glazed earthenware that
is very well closed with wax so that it does not breathe. Then it is kept in
putrefaction in warm manure for three months and shaken four or six
times every month. Then, having brought this composition to this point,
when you wish to use it you must grease that thing or put some ofit in
that vessel where you wish the fire to operate. This fire is such that it
ignites at once when fire is applied with gunpowder or a fuse, and it is in¬
extinguishable until either the thing or the composition itself is whoUy
consumed. If it is thrown burning on armor it makes it so glowing hot
that whoever is wearing it is compelled to take it offifhe does not wish to
burn with it.
Another kind offire is made that is a very thin and incendiary Hquor.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 438
When a piece ofwood or other thing apt to bum is anointed with it in the
dog days, the heat of the sun has the power to ignite it and to bum it
without other fire. It is said that Marcus Graecus made it in order to bum
the naval fleet ofthe Romans. It is further said that when lighted with fire
the material it touches immediately ignites, and it is inextinguishable
unless it is covered with sand or moistened with old urine or with very
strong vinegar, and that it bums equally in water. To make this, the said
Marcus Graecus tells you to take camphor, oil ofhve sulphur, turpentine
oil, elaterite oil,*juniper oil, rock oil, linseed oil, alchitran, finely crushed
colophony, oil of egg yolks, ship’s pitch, zagora wax, strained duck fat,
saltpeter, together with twice the whole composition ofaqua vitae, and an
eighth part ofthe whole of arsenic and tartar and some sal ammoniac. All
the aforesaid things are put in a well-closed cucurbit and are put to heat
and putrefy under warm manure for two months. Then all the said things
are put in a retort and are distilled with a slow fire. From these things there
issues within seven or eight hours a very thin Hquor in which is put
enough [164^] cow dung that has been dried in a furnace, broken up,
sifted, and made very fine to give it a body similar to a sauce, or more
hquid. Then when you wish to use it, anoint the thing you wish to bum.
He says that fire is also generated within it by the rays ofthe sun. Not only
does the material and the object anointed with it burn, but every other
inflammable thing near by.
It is also said that another incendiary composition is made which mar¬
velously burns the thing anointed with it when wetted with the rain or in
some other way. To make this he says that you take freshly made calcine
offlintstone, lodestone calcined by fire, a thirty-second part ofreddened
vitriol, eight parts ofsaltpeter refined many times; an amount equal to the
whole of camphor, fixed oil of hve sulphur, turpentine oil, saltpeter, sal
ammoniac of a weight equal to the vitriol; tartar, and salt or [of?] urine
and aqua vitae made ofstrong wine in a quantity that generously suffices
to moisten the whole composition. When these things have been mixed
together as I told you the others are made, they are put in a large glass
cucurbit, closed well so that it may not breathe, under warm manure for
two or three months. The cucurbit is shaken and the manure is changed
often (at least every ten days) so that this material may ferment well
and incorporate together and assume the form of a liquor of natural
unity. It must then be boiled on a slow fire long enough to evaporate the
* oglio laterino for the laterum oleum ofMarcus Graecus.
CHAPTER 9 INCENDIARY COMPOSITIONS 439
oily or other moistness that it contains and the residue becomes strong.
When the residue has been thus hardened and made dry, the cucurbit is
broken and it is taken out, ground, and made into powder. When you
wish to use it, it is scattered over the desired place so that when it rains or
when you or someone else moistens it, the fire ignites all over.*
Now this composition was given to me by a great alchemist and experi¬
menter with many substances who made many fine things with the excep¬
tion ofgold and silver. He taught it to me as a fine and great secret, and he
told me that he had tried it himselfand that I should consider it as the very
truth. Ifit is a lie, he is the one who tells it to you. The information that I
had about the others was through a little work that came into my hands
long ago. It had been very anciently written on parchment, and its letters
were so faint that they were read only with difficulty. Because of the
majesty ofthe ancient writing I was forced to hold it in reverence and to
lend it faith, especially since I gave consideration to the nature of the
simples used in compounding it, and these, in my opinion, are all appro¬
priate things, disposed to inflame. Therefore I have not refrained from
using it, though indeed, having told you of gunpowder, I could without
blame have made an end there ofspeaking about fires. For, of all those
fires used by the ancients or the moderns, there never was one equal to
that of gunpowder. Let them indeed read the writers oftheir histories as
much as [165] they wish, or the philosophers, discoverers, and examiners
of things, for they have not found effects similar to this in power or as
easy in its operation. On gunpowder I advise you to base everything
when you have to make use offire.
* If this concoction really works (and the fact that Biringuccio’s alchemical informant
did not make gold or silver is an indication of probable veracity) it seems likely that it
ignites because of the heat of oxidation offinely divided iron, mixed with combustibles
to maintain fire. The final heating in the cucurbit would heat the lower layers enough to
reduce the various ferruginous materials, but would not drive off all the volatile com¬
bustible matter in the upper layers.
440 PIROTECHNIA BOOK X
THE TENTH CHAPTER
Method ofPreparing Fireworks Called Girandoles, Which
Were Once Customarily Used in Some Tuscan
Citiesfor Magnificent Displayfor Public
Festivities on Solemn Feast Days. IDO not want to omit anything in which fire or its operation has a
part, ifI know or can tell it, and have already told you so many other
useful, powerful, and ingenious effects (fmally of powder and other
fire deadly and very injurious to all Hving things, indeed, composed for
the destruction ofthose who possess it as well as those who do not) but I
do not want the end ofmy writing to be in tragedy. Therefore I wished
to tell you how, from these fires composed offorceful and horrible mate¬
rials bringing harm and terror to men, a happy and pleasing effect is also
produced and, instead offleeing from it, the people willingly go to see it.
Among others I remember that it was once customary to use these in
Florence and in Siena, more than elsewhere. The chieffeast day celebrated
by one ofthese cities is the day ofthe birth of SaintJohn, and the other is
the Assumption ofOur Lady, on the fifteenth ofthe month ofAugust. In
the morning they visit the shrines with great devotion and solemnity,
displaying their pomp as much as possible, and later they hunt Hons, wild
bulls, untamed horses, and many other animals. In the same public squares
there was also erected as a decoration an edifice fixed in the ground in the
middle of this space, or hanging from a heavy rope crossing between
the loftiest points of equal height that could be found in that place. This
they have done and still do, and perhaps in time to come will continue to
do when opportune.
This structure was usually of wood; indeed it is necessary that the lat¬
ticework ofits construction be made only ofthis. It was covered and en¬
larged by tying and fastening hay on top to bring it almost to completion
and then papier-mache was applied. [i65f] The figures were first appro¬
priately painted and made ofa combination ofvessels one above the other,
developing various decorative figures in relief which should represent
some fable or history and should not appear haphazardly made or without
understanding. Now the master proceeded to arrange these figures in a
composition according to his skill or art of design, and likewise planned
CHAPTER 10 FIREWORKS 441
the operation of the fireworks that he wished to display or that seemed
fitting to him. Various kinds were put there, here squibs, there fire tubes
with balls, there girandoles, Hghts, flames, crackers, and other similar
effects.* Finally all were provided with boiled fuses of cotton and gun¬
powder for starting the fire. Then after the PaUof had been run in the
evening after supper toward the first or second hours ofthe night, the fire
was lighted by means of a master fuse which touched off aU those things
that were there so as to hght everything, as I shall tell you.
Ifyou have never seen a girandole, as perhaps you never have, you may
understand what it was when you hear it named. Indeed, although it was
a beautiful thing and cost much money, it was a useless thing to make.
Nevertheless those times were truly golden, that is, they had much gold
to spend for things without consideration of the expense, and fireworks
had no other purpose than amusement and endured no longer than the
kiss of a lover for his lady, if as long. Now, so that you may know exactly
what they are, I shall tcU you how they are made and how they are
operated. First they selected a fable or historical scene. Then, in order to
represent it, they made four, six, or eight figures wliich with their posture
or appearance should represent that fable or story. To make these figures
they first built a framework of wood with arms- and legs and then pro¬
ceeded to enlarge it to shape by tying hay on aU its parts. Then they put
on the head, feet, and hands that they had made by moulding in plaster of
Paris. Then they clothed them with heavy linen cloth and painted them
elsewhere with flesh-colored tints. Then these figures were placed wher¬
ever they seemed most fitting, by arranging the combinations of vessels
above vessels or other attached things with which they attained a height
ofthirty or forty hraccia, depending on the knowledge or the desire ofthe
master or ofwhoever paid the bills.
When this had been painted and made beautiful, they had two or three
thousand rockets ofvarious kinds and sizes, some to make explosions, and
some arranged to move upv/ards toward the sky, others level, and others
to strike the ground. Among these, in the mouths ofanimals or figures or
* We have provided English equivalents for Biringuccio’s names for the various fire¬
works with some misgiving. The words translated are: squibs, soffioni; fire tubes (essen¬
tially Roman candles), trombe or trombe di fuocho; girandoles, girandole; crackers, scioppi;
rockets, razzi.
f The Sienese Palio is a colorful horse race and procession for which the prize is the
Pallium, the banner ofthe Virgin. It is still celebrated in the main square of the city and
attracts many visitors.
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 442
wherever seemed best, were put some squibs which project tongues offire
two or three hraccia long. Elsewhere fire tubes were put which would
expel balls made in the way that I have described to you before. In other
places they put small girandoles each one of which consists of two [166]
little squibs tied individually one on each end of a stick of wood a dito
thick and with a hole in the middle, so that it can turn when fastened
loosely with a nail to the end ofa pole. The holes should be made near the
diameter, as are those in guns. These are not only beautiful as a girandole
but would also be very useful in defense against the scaling ofladders on a
wall, or against the onrush of battle toward a battery. In addition they
provide strong protection, for when the fire has been lighted on these, it
makes the stick turn easily by its own force. From their beautiful appear¬
ance when they bum, they seem to be wheels offire from which, I beheve,
derives the name of calling them girandoles.
Now these things were put in place according to the opinion of the
master, and the more ofthese there were and the more varied, the more
beautiful this thing was judged. Therefore they made some of these
rockets which, no sooner were they extinguished than they seemed to
give birth to four or six others in the air. Likewise the masters made
various powders that took fire, and ten or fifteen hghts at one time made
out of a composition of turpentine, pine resin, ship’s pitch, and gun¬
powder, with dry laurel sawdust. And, to conclude, they apphed the fire
to this contrivance with a fuse made of cotton boiled in vinegar mixed
with sulphur, gunpowder, and saltpeter. A master fuse was joined to all
the fuses that were to do the igniting.
As I told you, it was customary to make this thing in many places, and
the ones I know most of were in Florence and Siena. Truly it was an
ingenious and beautiful thing to see it produce so many effects in fire, just
as living things do by themselves. Now of all the said festivals, only this
one has remained in Rome in Castel Sant’Angelo when popes are elected
or crowned or at other great celebrations. But instead ofconstructing this
edifice they make use ofthe whole castle, which is indeed a very pleasing
shape. They ornament it by placing in each embrasure and on top ofeach
merlon two small lanterns made ofa sheet ofwhite paper over a mound of
clay in which a tallow candle is put. When they are ht at night it is a very
beautiful thing to see that shining and transparent whiteness in many rows
as far as the eye can reach. As soon as the lanterns are lighted, two salutes
are fired from a large number ofshort guns, all ofwhich hurl into the air
CHAPTER 10 FIREWORKS 443
balls of fire made like those that are put in the tube I have already de¬
scribed to you. These make a clear fire in the air that appears like stars,
finally bursting. At the third round they shoot many rockets that are a
palmo long and hold three to four ounces ofpowder each. These are con¬
structed so that after they have moved upwards with a [i66v] long tail and
seem to be finished they burst and each one sends forth anew six or eight
rockets. Fire tubes are also made and small girandoles, flames, and lights,
and even the coat ofarms ofthe Pope is composed in fire. Up on the high¬
est peak ofthe castle where the angel is attached to the flagpole the shape
of a great star containing many rays is erected.
Thus, in short, when all the fire is lit and the guns go off, and the
rockets, fire tubes, squibs, and balls go hither and thither nothing can be
seen but smoke and fire, and verily it seems then to be the fire imagined in
hell. As far as I know, I have never seen such a thing in any other festival,
and to enable you to understand both things better I shall draw them here
for you.
Figure 84. Girandoles,
444 PIROTECHNIA BOOK X
THE LAST CHAPTER
Concerning the Fire That Consumes without Leaving
Ashes, That Is More Powerful than All Other
Fires, and That Has as Its Smith the
Great Son of Venus. I HAVE now traversed for you in the small and fragile bark of my
writing all the shores ofthe deep and spacious sea embracing the uses
of material fires, drawn on by my own desire to enrich you with
more learning and with the procedures of these things, as much as to
satisfy your demands. Having through the grace of God arrived at the
appointed end of my voyage and neither knowing nor perceiving a way
of going farther, I had decided to furl the [167] sails and cast the heavy
anchors into the water in order to enjoy in tranquillity respite from my
sailing, when I was warned by my pilot that before I could disembark I
should turn my glance backward and reexamine my work in detail to see
if there were any part that had by chance remained undescribed in the
obscurity of silence. When I did this there immediately appeared in my
mind’s eye the many subhmates and smoky tinctures that had been made
by the burning and most powerful fire oflove. I need not say that I knew
ofit in far-off countries or from the knowledge ofothers, but I knew it in
my own breast and as my very own and can therefore surely esteem it as
hotter than all the other fires that the world calls by that name.
Although today its sparks and Hving flames are spent because of my
cold and hoary season, nevertheless it is true that the memory of acts of
love oflong ago still remains with some smoke and warmth. Therefore,
since in this work ofmine I wish to describe for you the effects and powers
of fires, I should logically have spoken of this before any of the others,
because ofits actual nearness and the great acquaintance I had with it. But
since I have had the glance of my intentions directed at distant things, I
have behaved as one does who does not see where he places his feet be¬
cause he is looking at the sky, or as one who thinks about the affairs of
others and forgets his own.
But now I do not wish to pass over this thing and I wish to correct my
error, particularly in order to provide a happier ending to my written
work than by remaining among the horrible uproar ofguns, powder, and
saltpeter, which would be a harsher ending than speaking oflove. Never-
LAST CHAPTER CUPID’S FIRE 445
theless, many (and some from experience) consider love a very serious and
unpleasant thing because of its incomprehensible vigor, to which in my
opinion nothing else can remotely be compared, except the fire that is said
to be found in the center of the Inferno as the fmal torment of damned
souls. This likeness is easily shown by the fact that both of these fires are
spiritual, and, while in the one, ifmen are desperate because ofthe sin of
having lost grace, they torture their souls, in the other they destroy not
only their souls but, unlike the first, they visibly destroy their body also in
the desire and hope ofacquiring it.
Therefore the fire oflove surpasses that ofthe inferno as much as it sur¬
passes elemental fire and the materials compounded by art. Nor will any¬
one deny to me that an effect is greater and more worthy, the more noble
its cause. Who doubts that this is spiritual (as I have said), that it comes
from heaven, that it is the true activity ofthe soul, and that it is actually
judged with the substance of the heart in the seat ofthe intellect? Surely
anyone who knows it will acclaim it and prize it as a thing divine, since it
effects nothing except with the intent of good. For this reason men have
called it God, and skillful poets in order to demonstrate its marvelous
effects [167^] have represented it under poetic veil as a young god, naked
and winged, triumphant on a car of inextinguishable fire, with bow in
hand and numerous arrows at his side. As his own name they have called
him Cupid, which means nothing other than cupidity.
In order to explain what love means (although this word has many
meanings according to the way one wishes to understand it), in so far as I
can believe in it I do not mean other than this: that is, an imaginative
thought fixed on the knowledge of the desired thing. Wherefore our
most simple intelligence is often blinded by the senses, becomes en¬
tangled, and seizes what it desires, drawn on by beauty or by the im¬
moderate hope of possession. Sometimes it descends to wanton sensual
and reprehensible desire. It is nourished by devotion and other similar
veryjuvenile and unstable thoughts. In order to exalt it further these per¬
sons say that it was bom in heaven ofVenus by Vulcan, and that not only
in heaven but also on earth it is associated with kindness ofspirit, natural
nobihty, and a particular appeal ofgreat radiant beauty. Nevertheless, the
favor ofthe countenances ofharmonious superior causes is very powerful
in this. Its chains and bands are the natural human graces and blandishing
caresses, virtue, modesty, honor, and every other guileless act. It is not
only somewhat nourished by these things, but it is made vivid and ever
PIROTECHNIA BOOK X 446
greater by experience until finally it is converted into a fire that devours
and bums so much more strongly as more wood and charcoal in the form
ofthese things is gathered upon it as fuel. Indeed there are some ofthese
things more inextinguishable than sulphur, having the power to make the
irreparable fire very potent and great and also to multiply it like a pestilent
contagion. It burns not in mortal man alone, but without respect for wis¬
dom, strength, or riches, in kings, emperors or, as we read, even in the
gods, and in unthinking animals, aquatic and frigid fish and the insects,
however small and base they may be. Therefore this thing is obviously
known to be a cause derived from heaven, influencing every natural living
creature, and also perhaps extending, as is beheved, from the date tree into
the realm ofthe plants.
Finally, since it is not possible to understand in full how great is the
force of desire and how it is converted into a fiery passion of the heart,
called in any language the fire oflove, we also shall call it thus. Just as it
has continually remained with me for a long time, so will it remain to be
numbered with other fires as long as my present work shall endure, ifnot
forever. IfI have not known how to set down a better knowledge ofits
nature or have been unable to, you must be content to accept my good
intentions.
I have omitted also to instruct you on its practice and its instruments as I
did in the others, not because I could not give you some information
from my own experience, but because it is too wide a sea [168] and is full
of innumerable ways for journeying to the desired haven, each one of
which needs its own vessels and appropriate instruments. For wherever
one may arrive, either by chance or by skill, right there will he find the
glowing melting furnaces, the bellows, the hammers, and the anvils—
which things are naught but quarrels, jealousies, fears, and many other
great and annoying agencies, which all have the power to kindle the
tormenting and continuous flames. Anyone who has experienced or is
experiencing them can be a good witness of what they are.
Now here, without further digression let us make an end for the
present to our long discourse.
Printed in Venice by Venturino
Roffinello at the instance of
Curtio Navo and Brothers in
M.CCCCC.XL
APPENDIX A
FiguresJrom other sources illustrative ofBiringuccio’s descriptions.
Figure I. Equipment for the recovery of gold from amalgam. (Ercker, Aller￾furnemisten mineralischen Ertzt und Berckwercksarten, Prague, 1574. Reproduction
from second edition, Frankfurt, 1580, page 51.)
Note the earthenware and iron retorts D and E for distilling mercury from the amalgam, the
wooden mortar for purifying the mercury with salt, and, in particular, the bag or purse ofchamois
leather for separating the solid amalgam from excess mercury. See page 30.
448 PIROTECHNIA
Figure II. Chambers for the distillation and condensation ofmercury. (Agricola,
De re metallica, Basle, 1556, page 347.)
Compare this illustration with that of Biringuccio (Fig. 5), which shows the chambers as being
much smaller in size. Agricola’s description of the furnace and process is virtually a translation of
Biringuccio. It is probable that neither artist had seen the furnaces, but the interpretation of
Agricola’s artist seems the more reasonable.
APPENDIX A 449
Figure III. Furnace for melting, working, and annealing glass. (Agiucola, op. cit.,
page 474.)
The description ofthis furnace as given by Agricola is essentially that ofBiringuccio. His illus¬
tration shows, however, in a much clearer manner the two zones in the furnace, that for melting
and working (£) and for amiealing (f).
450 PIROTECHNIA
Figure IV. Blast furnaces for smelting ores. (Agricola, op. cit., page 315.)
APPENDIX A 451
Figure V. Furnace for the cementation ofgold. (Agricola, op. cit., page 367.)
For Biringuccio’s description ofthis furnace, see page 203.
452 PIROTECHNIA
Figure VI. Diagrammatic section of a completed
gun mould.
This drawing (which serves to illustrate Biringuccio’s
description of gun founding, Book VI, Chapters 3 to ii)
is based on one by Saint Remy {Memoires d’artillerie, 1697)
but has been modified sHghtly to agree with Biringuccio’s
account. The mould consists ofthe main body, AA, closed
at the bottom by the fitted breech mould, B. The core, C,
built up of clay upon an iron core-rod, is held centrally in
the mould by the iron chaplet, D, at the bottom and by the
clay disc, E, at the top. The trunnion cavities are closed by
bricks, F. The whole mould is reinforced with an armature
of heavy iron bands and iron wire and is buried in a pit for
casting with the muzzle and feeding head, G, uppermost.
The pattern on which the clay mould is built up is made
ofeither wood or clay, but in either case the cornices, trun¬
nions, and other projecting parts are apphed over a layer
ofwax so that the pattern can be driven lengthwise out of
the mould, leaving these parts to be later removed by hand.
The ends of the pattern are extended to act as journals
which rest and rotate on suitable tresdes. Clay, appHed as
the pattern is rotated, is shaped by a strickle board securely
held on the trestles.
There is some doubt about the size and shape of the
feeding head. Biiinguccio’s drawing ofthe pattern (Fig. 29)
shows a very small hemispherical head aboue the core-disc
print. To have been effective it must have been below this,
as shown in the present drawing. The importance of the
feeding head in giving a sound casting is emphasized by
Biringuccio, though he gives no dimensions for it. Saint
Remy says that the feeding head on a caimon should weigh
no less than 4,000 pounds. It was, of course, sawn from the
gun after removal from the mould.
APPENDIX A 453
Figure VII. Diagram showing Biringuccio’s method of designing a bell.
The unit length for the design of a bell of any weight is the rim thickness, obtained by actual
measure from the bell scale in Figure 33. In laying out the bell, first draw OA, 14 units long; then
OB and OC, each (BC=I3): then AD and AE each 3>^ (DE=7). Complete the trapezium
DECB. Round the top by judgment or by drawing the part circle FAG. (The circle tangent to
DB, DE, and EC touches the sides at a height of about 10^; later instructions allow the straight
side to continue up to about 12, and this is shown in the drawing.) Extend DB to H, making BH=i.
Draw HI=i and the diagonal Bl. Draw IK parallel to BH and also oflength i. The curvature of
the outside is established by connecting with a smooth curve the points K, L, M, N, and P, which
are at heights of0, 3,9, and 12 units above the base line and correspond to thicknesses measured
from the straight line BD of i, K. K> ^ respectively. The curved crown is made
the same thickness as the rim; i.e., /1Q=I. Templates are cut to the shape ofthe inside and outside
ofthe bell and are used as strickles to shape the moulding clay.
454 PIROTECHNIA
WEIGHT OF BELL IN POUNDS
10 100 500 1,000 5,000 10,000
Figure VIII. Curve showing the relation between rim thickness and weight ofbells.
The points plotted represent the average results of measurement of Figure 3 3 in three copies of
the 1540 edition. The three copies agreed within i per cent, but would all have been affected by
paper shrinkage since the time of printing. The measurements were as follows;
Weight, Rim thickness, Weight, Rim thickness. Weight, Rim thickness,
lb. cm. lb. cm. lb. cm.
10 I-3I 500 3-55 6.06
20 1-57 600 3.82 3620* 6.46
30 1.67 740 4.09 4100 6.83
40 1.90 820 4.29 5040 7.09
50 2.12 930 4.56 6000 7.36
80 2.40 1000 4.78 7050 7.76
140 2.58 1500 4.93 8130 8.18
200 2.80 1570 5.16 9000 8.47
320 3.04 2300 5-39 10000 8.80
430 3-31 2530 5.66
*In Figure 33, the numbers IIIMLXXX (3080) and IIIMDCXX (3620) are interchanged.
0
00
0
APPENDIX A 455
WEIGHT OF BELL IN POUNDS (logarithmic scale)
Figure IX. Curve showing the relation between the weights of bell and clapper.
The data plotted are given by Biringuccio on page 273.
456 PIROTECHNIA
Figure X. Athanor and other furnaces for the distillation of nitric acid. (Ercker,
op. cit., page jov.) . i u
Note the stack ofthe athanor, A, which is sealed so that the fuel it contains can bum only at the
bottom, where the products ofcombustion pass through flues into the side chambers, B, containmg
the vessels to be heated.
APPENDIX B
Weights and Measures. ONE of the perplexing problems that face the translator of an old technical
treatise is the question ofterms for units of weight and measure. We have
used an Enghsh word only when it is Hnguistically equivalent to the ItaHan
one and is a unit of approximately the same size. Libbra and oncia thus become
pound and ounce, for the actual weights were within lo per cent of the modern
Troy weights. On the other hand, the length measures braccio, pahno, and dito,
which could be rendered literally as arm, palm, and finger or digit, respectively,
have no good English metrological equivalents and it has seemed best to retain
the Itahan words.
The exact transfer of Biringuccio’s weights and measures into modern terms is
impossible because of the uncertainty as to his standards. Even as late as 1803,
when the metric system was first introduced into Italy, practically every city had
its own standards. There were, for example, at least eight different palmi, varying
from 22.3 to 29.2 centimeters. The values hsted below for the various units
mentioned by Biringuccio are the Florentine ones, which were also used in Siena
and Tuscany:
Length
I camia (agricultural and arcliitectural
measure) =5 braccia = igicm (114.9 in.)
I canna (mercantile measure) = 4 tr(jfn‘u = 233.4 cm (91.89 in.)
I braccio =2 pahni =58.36 cm (22.98 in.)
I pahno =29.18 cm (11.49 in.)
Biringuccio uses the braccio more frequently than any other unit. He refers to
distances as large as 300 braccia, and frequently uses fractions ofthe braccio—halves,
thirds, quarters, and occasionally eighths. The palmo (normally half a braccio)
is used commonly, though never for more than two, and the half is the only
fractional form. Nowhere does Biringuccio give dimensions in combined units
and it is not improbable that the various units were regarded as more or less
independent. In a few places the phrase “half a braccio or a palmo” occurs in a
manner indicating approximate rather than exact equivalence of these.
The smallest unit of length used by Biringuccio is the dito. Occasionally half a
dito is mentioned, but the maxim_um number is four. Once the phrase “four dita
or even a palmo” appears. We have been unable to fmd any specific value for the
dito prior to the establishment ofthe metric system in Milan in 1803, when it was
made equal to one centimeter. The Florentine braccio was customarily divided into
20 soldi, each of 12 denari. As Biringuccio nowhere uses these words, it is just
possible that Iris dito was the soldo, pahno (2.92 cm or 1.15 in.). An alternative
division of the palmo, used in Genoa, Naples, and Rome, was into 12 oncie. The
piede of sixteenth-century Rome was pahni and contained 16 oncie, making
the oncia a division similar to the digitus of ancient Rome, which was pes or
K4 cubitus. If Biringuccio had in mind any specific unit, and was not using dito
PIROTECHNIA 458
in a general sense as just finger’s width (as indeed he uses thread and cord for the
smaller dimensions), it seems most probable that it was a unit ofthis kind that was
intended. Assuming it to be the twelfth part ofa Florentine pa/mo, the dito becomes
equal to 2.43 cm or 0.957 hi. In his Latin translation ofparts ofthe Pirotechnia for
inclusion in De re metallka, Agricola uses the equivalent of 2 pedes for i hraccio,
and considers the palmus and palmo, digitus and dito to be the same. Vincent trans¬
lates braccio, palmo, and dito into French as hrasse, pied, and doight respectively.
Johannsen uses the German Elle, Span, and Zoll. Biringuccio rarely gives dimen¬
sions in a manner implying accuracy, and the reader may consider the braccio and
palmo as equal to 2 feet and i foot respectively, and the dito as i inch in modem
Enghsh or United States measure.
In the two cases where Biringuccio has to be specific in his dimensions he uses
no units whatever. In designing bells, for instance, he gives a woodcut with lines
the exact length that the thickness ofthe rim of the beU has to be for the desired
weight, and the whole bell is constructed by proportion from this scaled distance.
Guns are designed on the basis ofthe diameter ofthe ball.
Weight
I libbra (pound) =12 oncie =339.55 grams (0.748 lb. av.)
I oncia (ounce) =24 denari = 28.30 “ (0.909 oz. av.)
I denrjro (pennyweight) =24grani = 1.18 “
I grano (grain) = 0.049 “
Note that the grano is ^76 of the ounce, not like the grain in Troy or
Apothecaries’ weights.
Volume
The units ofvolume that are used in the Pirotechnia are the staio or staro (equiva¬
lent to 24.36 htres, or 6.435 U.S. gallons); the soma (66.86 Htres, 17.66 U.S.
gallons); and the boccale (1.140 Htres, 1.205 U.S. gallons, for alcohoHc beverages
or 1.045 Htres, 1.104 U.S. quarts, for oh).
APPENDIX C
List ofeditions* ofthe Pirotechnia.
ITALIAN EDITIONS
1540
De la pirotechnia. Libri .X. dove ampiamente si tratta non solo di ogni sorte &
diuersita di miniere, ma anchora quanto si ricerca intomo a la prattica di quelle
cose di quel che si appartiene a I’arte de la fusione ouer gitto de metaUi come
d’ogni altra cosa simile i questa. Composti per il S. Vanoccio Biringuccio
All the editions listed have been verified by inspection of the actual volumes. They are accessible
in various pubhc and university libraries in the eastern United States.
APPENDIX C 459
Sennese. Con priuilegio apostolico & de la Cesarea Maesta & del illustriss. Senate
Venato. [Venetia] M D XL.
8 p. 1., i68 1. 22 cm.
Colophon: Stampata in Veneria per Venturino Roffinello. Ad instantia di Curtio Nauo. &
fratelli. Del M.CCCCC.XL.
1350
Pirotechnia. Li diece libri della pirotechnia, nelliquali si tratta non solo la diuersita
delle minere, ma ancho quanto si ricerca alia prattica di esse: e di quanto s’ap￾partiene all’arte della fusione ouer getto de metalli, e d’ogni altra cosa a questa
somigUante. Composti per il S. Vannuccio Biringuccio, nobile Senese. Col
privilegio apostolico, e della C. Maesta, e dell’lUuss. Senate Veneto. [Venetia]
M D L.
8 p. 1., 168 1. 22 cm.
Colophon: In Vinegia, per Giouan Padoano, a instantia di Gurtio [sir] di Nauo. M D L.
1538/9
Pirotechnia. Li diece libri della pirotechnia, neUi quali si tratta non solo la diuersita
delle minere, ma ancho quanto si ricerca alia prattica di esse: e di quanto s’ap￾partiene all’arte della fusione ouer getto de metaUi, e d’ogni altra cosa a questa so
mighante. Composta per il S. Vannuccio Biringoccio, nobile Senese. Col Privilegio
apostoheo, e della C. Maesta, e dell’Illustriss. Senato Veneto. [Vinegia] M D L
VIII.
8 p. 1., 168 1. 22 cm.
Colophon: In Vinegia per Comin da Trino di Monferrato. M D LIX.
1339
Pirotechnia del S. Vannvccio Biringvccio Senese; nella qvale si tratta non solo
della diuersita delle minere, ma ancho di quanto si ricerca aUa pratica di esse. E di
quanto s’appartiene all’arte della fusione, 6 getto, de metalh. Far campane,
artegherie, fuochi artificiati, & altre diuerse cose utilissime. Nvovamente corretta,
et ristampata. Con la tauola delle cose uotabih. In Venetia appresso P. Gironimo
GigUo, e compagni. M. D. LIX.
345 1., 7 1. index. 15 cm.
i6y8
Pirotechnia del Signor Vannvccio Biringvccio Senese, nella quale si tratta non solo
della diuersita delle minere, ma anco di quanto si ricerca alia pratica di esse, e che
s’appartiene all’arte della fusione, 6 getto de metalli. Far campane, artigliarie,
fuochi artificiati, & altre diuerse cose vtilissime. Nuouamente corretta, e ristam￾pate, con le figure appropriate a suoi luoghi, e due tauole I’vna de capitoH, e
I’altra delle cose notablli [sic] . . . Bologna, Gioseffo Longhi, [1678].
16 p. 1., 630 p. 17 cm.
1914
Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480-1539) De la pirotechnia (1540) Edizione critica
condotta sulla prima edizione, corredata di note, prefazioni, appendici ed indici,
ed ornata dalle riproduzioni del frontespizio e delle 82 figure originaii a cura di
460 PIROTECHNIA
Aldo Mieli. Volume I. [all published] ... Bari, Society tipografica editrice Barese,
1914-
Ixxxv p. p., 198 p. 21 cm. (Classici dellc scien2e e della filosofia a cura di A. Mieli cd E. Troilo.
Serie scientifica, I.)
FRENCH EDITIONS
1336
La pyrotechnie, ov art dv fev, contenant dix hvres, avsquels est amplement traict^
de routes sortes & diuersite de minieres, fusions & separations des metaux: des
formes & monies pour getter artilleries, cloches, & routes autres figures: des
distillations, des mines, contremines, pots, boulets, fusees, lances, & autres feuz
artificiels, concemans I’art militaire, & autres choses dependantes du feu. Composee
par le seigneur Vanoccio Biringuccio Siennois. Et traduite d’ltaUen en Francois,
par feu maistre laques Vincent ... A Paris, chez Claude Fremy a I’enseigne S.
Martin, rue S. laques. 1556.
4 p. 1., 230 1. 23 cm.
1372
La pyrotechnie, ov art dv fev, contenant dix Hvres, avsquels est amplement
traicte de routes sortes et diuersite de minieres, fusions et separations des metaux,
des formes & monies pour getter artilleries, cloches & routes autres figures, des
distillations, des mines, contremines, pots, boulets, fusees, lances, et autres feuz
artificiels, concemans Tart miHtaire, et autres choses dependantes du feu, composee
par Vanuccio Biringuccio, et traduite d’itahen en francois, par laques Vincent.
A Paris, chez Claude Fremy, 1572.
4 p. 1., 168 1. 22 cm.
1627
La pyrothecnie, ov art dv fev, contenant dix Hvres. Avsqvels est amplement
traicte de routes sortes & diuersite de minieres, fusions & separations des metaux:
des formes & monies pour letter artilleries, cloches & routes autres figures: des
disriUations, des mines, contremines, pots, boulets, fusees, lances, & autres feux
artificiels, concemans Fart militaire, & autres choses dependantes du feu. Composee
en ItaHen par le Seigneur Vanoccio Biringuccio Siennois: Et depuis traduite en
Francois par lacques Vincent. A Rouen, chez lacques CaiUoiie, tenant sa boutique
dans la Court du Palais. M. DC. XXVII.
2 p. 1., 228 [i.e. 230] 1., 2 1. index. 22 cm.
l8$6
Traite de la fabrication des bouches a feu de bronze au XVIe siecle, en ItaHe.
Extrait des Hvres V, VI, et VII de la Pirotechnia, de Vanoccio Biringuccio, pubHe
a Venise en 1540. Traduit de I’italien par Rieffel, Professeur aux ecoles d’artUlerie.
Avec deux planches. Paris, Librairie miHtaire, maritime et polytechnique de J.
Correard, Hbraire-editeur et Hbraire-commissionnaire. . . . 1856.
2 p. 1., 124 p. 24 cm.
The British Museum catalogue lists a book with identical title except for the date, which is given
as 1836. This is a typographical error.
APPENDIX C 461
GERMAN EDITION
1923
Biringuccios Pirotechnia. Ein Lehrbuch der chemisch-metallurgischen Tech¬
nologic und des Artilleriewesens aus dem 16. Jahrhundert. Ubersetzt und erlautert
von Dr. Otto Johannsen, Mit 85 abbildungen. Braunschweig, Friedr. Vieweg &
Sohn Akt.-Ges., 1925.
xvi p. p., 544 p. 22 cm.
ENGLISH EDITIONS
There has hitherto been no complete translation of the Pirotechnia into Enghsh.
For a discussion of several partial translations see the Introduction, pages xxi to
xxiii, of the present work. The following alone seem to merit Hsting here:
1553
Of the generation of metalles and their mynes with the maner of fyndinge the
same: written in the Itahen tounge by Vannuccius Biringuczius in his booke
cauled Pyrotechnia ...
In The decades of the neive worlde or West India . . . written in the Latine tounge by Peter Martyr of
Angleria, and translated into Englysshe by Rycharde Eden. Londini, Guilhclmi Powell, 1555, 1.
3251^-342.
Eden translated only the preface and first two chapters of Book I. His work “newly set in
order by Richard Wdles” was reprinted in London in 1577. We have not seen a copy ofthis edi¬
tion but presume it to contain the section from Biringuccio. A meticulously edited and armotated
reprint ofthe 1555 edition was included in Edward Arber’s First Three English Books on America,
which was pubhshed at Birmingham in 1885 and again at Westminster in 1895.
1360
Whitehorn, Peter: Certain waies for the orderyng of souldiers in battelray . . .
and more ouer, howe to make saltpeter, gunpoulder and diuers sortes offireworkes
or wilde fyre . . . London, 1560 (Colophon 1562).
Whitehorn translates, without acknowledgment, the greater part of Book X of the Pirotechnia.
The work was reprinted in London in 1588.
1941
Of typecasting in the sixteenth century; being a description of the art of type¬
casting given by Vannoccio Biringuccio in his Pirotechnia printed at Venice by
Venturino Roffmello in MDXL, and newly translated into English by Martha
Teach Gnudi and Cyril Stanley Smith, with notes and an introduction by the
latter. [New Haven] Printed for the Columbiad club ofConnecticut, MDCCCC￾XLL
14, [2] p. 20 cm.
Annotated excerpt from the present translation. Book IX, chapter 7.
APPENDIX D
Bibliography
References are in all cases to the earliest known editions. In the few cases where the
first edition has been unavailable for consultation, the particular one studied is
indicated. Enghsh translations are included when known, but not others.
Agricola, Georg: Bermannus sive de re metaUica. Basle, 1530.
Agricola, Georg: De re metaUica hbri XII . . , Basle, 1556.
Enghsh translation by H. C. and L. H. Hoover, London, 1912.
Alessio Piemontese (Pseudonym): Secreti del Reverendo Domno Alessio
Piemontese. . . . Venice, 1555.
For most of the many editions, see Ferguson and Darmstaedter. We have
used the English translation of 1559/60 and the French edition printed by
Plantin in Antwerp in 1561.
(Amman,Jost): EigentUche beschreibung aUer Stande auff Erden. . . . Durch den
weitberumpten Hans Sachsen. (Woodcuts by Jost Amman.) Frankfurt, 1568.
(Amman, Jost): IIoi'OTrXia (Panopha) Omnium iUiberahum mechanicarum aut
sedentarium artium. . . . Per Hartmarm Schopper. Frankfurt, 1568.
This contains the same woodcuts by Jost Amman as the preceding, but with
Latin verses in place ofthe German ones.
Arber, Edward: The first three Enghsh books on America . . . being chiefly
translations, compilations &c by Richard Eden from the writings of Pietro
Martire, Sebastian Munster, . . . Sebastian Cabot &c. Edited by Edward Arber.
Birmingham, 1885. Second edition, Westminster, 1895.
Barba, Alvaro Alonso: Arte de los metales, en qve se ensena el verdadero
beneficio de los de oro, y plata por acogue. . . . Madrid, 1640.
Enghsh translation by Ross E. Douglass and E. P. Mathewson, New York,
1923.
Beckmann, Johann: Beytrage zur Geschichte der Erfmdungen. 5 vols., Leipsig,
1780-1805.
Enghsh translation by William Johnston, 3d ed. London, 1817.
Berthelot, Marcellin Pierre Eugene: CoUection des anciens alchimistes Grecs.
... Paris, 1888.
Boizard, Jean: Traite des monoyes, de leurs circonstances et dependances. . . .
Paris, 1696.
Bossert, Helmuth Theodor, and Storck, Willy F., ed.: Das mittelalterhche
Hausbuch, nach dem Originale im besitze des Fiirsten von Waldburg-Wohegg￾Waldsee, im auftrage des Deutschen Vereins fiir Kunstwissenschaft. Leipsig,
1912.
Cellini, Benvenuto: Dve trattati, vno intorno aUe otto principah arti del
Foreficeria. L’altro in materia deU’ arte deUa scultura. . . . Florence, 1568.
English translation by C. R. Ashbee (from the Itahan edition edited by
Milanesi, 1857), London, 1898.
APPENDIX D 463
Cennini, Cennino: II libro dell’ arte. [1437] Critical edition of Italian text with
English translation by Daniel Varney Thompson, Jr., 2 vols.. New Haven,
1932-33-
Darmstaedter, Ernst: Berg-, probir- und kunstbuchlein. (Munchener Beitrage
zur Geschichte und Literatur der Naturwissenschaften und Medecin, part 2/3.)
Munich, 1926.
DE Caus, Saloman: Les raisons des forces mouvants. ... Paris, 1624.
Deutsches Handwerk im Mittelalter, Bilder aus dem Hausbuch der Mendelschen
Zwolfbruderstiftung in Niirnberg, mit einem geleitwort von Friedrich Bock.
Leipsig, (1935). [Insel-Bucherei Nr. 477.]
Eden, Richard: The decades ofthe newe worlde or west India . .. written in the
latine tounge by Peter Martyr and translated into Englysshe by Rycharde Eden.
London, 1555.
The section translated from Biringuccio occupies pages 3261^ to. 342 and is
headed “Of the generation of metaUes and their mynes with the maner of
fyndinge the same: Written in the Italien tounge by Vannuccius Biringuczius in
his booke cauled Pyrotechnia”
Encyclopedie, ou dictionnaire raisonne des sciences, des arts et des metiers, par une
societe de gens de lettres. Mis en ordre et public par M. Diderot. . . . Paris,
Neufchatel etc., 1751-1765. Recueil de planches, Paris etc., 1762-1777.
Ercker, Lazarus: Beschreibung Allerfurnemisten MineraHschen Ertzt und
Berckwercksarten. . . . Prague, 1574. English translation by John Pettus, Lon¬
don, 1683.
We have used the second edition, Frankfurt, 1580. All German editions have
woodcuts printed from the same blocks.
Ferguson,John: Some early treatises on technological chemistry. Proc. Phil. Soc.
Glasgow, 1887, ig, 126-159. Also, particularly supplements III and IV, ibid.,
1911. 43> 232-258 and 1912, 44, 149-189.
FFOULKES, CharlesJohn: The gun-founders ofEngland, with a list ofEngHsh and
Continental gun-founders from the XIV to XIX centuries. Cambridge, 1937.
Francis, George Grant: The smelting of copper in the Swansea district of South
Wales from the time of Elizabeth to the present day. Swansea, 1867.
Galon, —: L’art de convertir le cuivre rouge ou cuivre de rosette en laiton ou
cuivrcjaunc. Paris, 1764.
Gaudin, a. M.: Mineral concentration by oil adhesion in the XVth century.
Engineering and Mining Journal, 1940, 141 (10), 43-44.
Geoffroy le cadet (i.e., Claude Joseph): Observations sur un metal qui resulte de
Falliage du cuivre et du zinc. Mem. Acad. Royale des Sciences (Paris) 1725,
pp. 57-66.
Glauber,Johann Rudolph: Des Teutschlandts Wohlfart.. .. Amsterdam, 1656-
61. Also Latin edition, DeProsperitateGermaniae, Amsterdam, 1656-61. Included
in collected EngHsh edition ofGlauber’s works, translated by Christopher Packe,
London, 1689.
Gobet, Nicolas: Les anciens mineralogistes du Royaume de France. Paris, 1779.
PIROTECHNIA 464
Hoare, Alfred: An Italian dictionary. 2d ed., Cambridge, 1925.
Hodgkin, John Eliot: Rariora, being notes ofsome of the printed books, manu¬
scripts . . . etc. London, 1902. 31^.
Hooke, Robert: The diary of Robert Hooke [for the years] 1672-1680, tran¬
scribed from the original.. . edited by Henry W. Robinson and Walter Adams.
London, 1935.
Hoover, Herbert Clark and Hoover, Lou Henry: Georgius Agricola De re
metallica, translated from the first Latin edition of 1556 with biographical
introduction, annotations and appendices. . . . London, 1912.
Hopkins, ArthurJohn: Alchemy, child of Greek philosophy. New York, 1934.
Merriheld, Mary Philadelphia: Original treatises dating from the Xllth to
XVIII centuries on the arts of painting . . . etc. London, 1849.
Neri, Antonio: L’arte vetraria distinta in libri sette. Florence, 1612.
Neri, Antonio: The art of glass, wherein are shown the ways to make and colour
glass . . . translated into English with some observations on the author [by
Christopher Merrett]. London, 1662.
Norton, Thomas: The ordinall ofalchimy. [1477] First printed in Elias Ashmole’s
collection, Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum, London, 1652.
We have used facsimile edition, edited by E. J. H. Holmyard, London, 1928.
Orsini, Ignazio: Storia delle monete de’Granduchi di Toscana . . . etc. Florence,
1756.
Parsons, William Barclay: Engineers and engineering in the Renaissance.
Baltimore, 1939.
Partington, James Riddick: Origins and development of applied chemistry.
London and New York, 1935.
Percy, John: Metallurgy: the art of extracting metals from their ores. . . . Fuel;
fireclays; copper; zinc; brass, etc. London, 1861: Iron and steel, London, 1864:
Silver and gold, Part I. London, 1880.
Perez de Vargas, Bernardo: De re metalica, en el qval se tratan mvchos y
diversos secretes del conocimiento de toda suerte de minerales. . . . Madrid,
1569 (Colophon: 1568).
Plinius Secundus, C.: Historia naturahs. The elder Pliny’s chapters on chemical
subjects. . . . Latin text edited with translation and notes by Kenneth C. Bailey.
London, 1929-32. 2 vols.
Read,John: Prelude to chemistry; an outline ofalchemy, its literature and relation¬
ships. London, 1936.
Red book of the exchequer (Liber rubeus de scaccario). Edited by Hubert Hall,
London, 1896.
Rosenberg, Marc: Geschichte der Goldschmiedekunst auf technischer Grundlage.
I. Niello bis zum jahre 1000 nach Chr. Frankfurt a. M., 1908; 2. Niello seit dem
jahre 1000 nach Chr. Frankfurt a. M., 1925.
Saint Remy, Pierre Surirey de: Memoires d’artillerie. Paris, 1697.
Sarton, George: Introduction to the history of science. Baltimore, 1927-31.
2 vols. in 3.
APPENDIX D 465
Theophilus: Diversarum artium schedula. An essay upon various arts. Latin text
and English translation with notes by Robert Hendrie. London, 1847.
Theophilus: Technik des Kunsthandwerks im zehnten Jahrhundert, des Theophilus
Presbyter, diversarum artium schedula, in Auswahl neu herausgegeben, iiber￾setzt und erlautert von Wilhelm Theobald. Berlin, 1933.
Thompson, Daniel Varney,Jr.: The schedula ofTheoplhlus presbyter. Speculum,
1932, 7, 199-220.
Thompson, Daniel Varney,Jr.: Trial index to some unpublished sources for the
history of medieval craftsmanship. Speculum, 1935, 10, 410-431.
Thorndike, Lynn: A history of magic and experimental science. New York,
1923-41. 6 vols.
Tommaseo, Niccolo, and Bellini, Bernardo: Dizionario della lingua ItaUana.
. . . Turin, 1915.
Whitehorn, Peter: Certain waies for the orderyng ofsouldiers in battelray . . .
and more ouer, howe to make saltpeter, gunpoulder and diuers sortes of fire￾workes or wilde fyre. ... London, 1560 (Colophon 1562).
Additional Bibliography, ig42-ig38
SOURCES:
Agricola Georgius: De natura fossilium (Textbook of mineralogy). Translated
from the first Latin edition of 1546 by Mark Chance Bandy and Jean A. Bandy
for the Mineralogical Society ofAmerica. New York, 1955.
Bergwerk- und Probierbiichlein. A translation from the German ofthe Bergbiich￾lein ... by Anneliese G. Sisco and of the Probierbiichlein ... by Anneliese G.
Sisco and Cyril Stanley Smith. New York, 1949.
(Ercker, Lazarus) : Lazarus Ercker’s treatise on ores and assaying translated from
the German edition of 1580 by Anneliese G. Sisco and Cyril Stanley Smith.
Chicago, 1951.
(MANSSON, Peder) : Peder Manssons Schriften iiber technische Chemie und Hiitten￾wesen . . . ubersetz und erlautert von Otto Johannsen. Berlin, 1941.
Porta, G. B. : Natural Magick ... in Twenty books (Facsimile reproduction of
1658 English translation from 1589 Latin edition.) New York, 1957-
(Reaumur, R. A. F. de): Reaumur’s memoirs on steel and iron. A translation ... by
Anneliese G. Sisco and Cyril Stanley Smith. Chicago, 1956.
(Theophrastus) : Theophrastus on Stones. Introduction, Greek text, English trans¬
lation and commentary [by] Earle R. Caley and John F. C. Richards. Columbus,
Ohio, 1956.
466 PIROTECHNIA
HISTORIES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
TOUCHING ON METALLURGY:
Adams, Frank Dawson : The birth and development of the geological sciences.
Baltimore, 1938.
Butterfield, Herbert : The origins ofmodern science. New edition, London, 1957.
Crombie, a. C. : Augustine to Galileo. The history ofscience ad 400-1650. London,
1952.
CoGHLAN, H. H.: Notes on the prehistoric metallurgy ofcopper and bronze in the
old world. Oxford, 1951.
CoGHLAN, H. H.: Notes on prehistoric and early iron in the old world. Oxford,
1956.
Forbes, R. J. : Metallurgy in antiquity. A notebook for archaeologists and tech¬
nologists. Leiden, 1950.
Hall, A. R.: The scientific revolution, 1500-1800. London, 1954.
Le fer a travers les ages. Actes du colloque International. Nancy, 1956.
Leicester, Henry M. : The historical background of chemistry. New York, 1956.
Needham, Joseph : Development ofiron and steel technology in China. London
(Newcomen Society), 1958.
Schubert, H. R. : History ofthe British iron and steel industry from C. 450B.C. to
A.D. 1775. London, 1957.
Singer, Charles, Holmyard, E. J., Hall, A. R., and Williams, Trevor L: A
history oftechnology. 5 vols. Oxford, 1954-59.
THE END
INDEX
Page references in italic numerals refer to illustrations. The letter ”n’’following a number
means afootnote; “a” refers to the appendix.
In some cases the key word will not befound on the page referred to, though the process or
phenomenon is described thereon in older terms.
ACIDS, 98, 99, 18311,188,351,372,383
Jr\. See also aqua fortis
Adda, river, 29, 31
Aeolian islands, 86
Africa, 99, no
agate, 120
Aggioaga, 56
Agiamban steel, 70
Agricola, Georg, xiii, xvu, xvni, xxn, xxiii,
30n, 45, 68n, 83n, i28n, I29n, I47n, I54n,
203n, 354n, 448a, 449a, 450a, 451a, 458a
agricultural implements, 370
alabaster, 121
Albertus Magnus, xrv, 32, 36, 90, 115
alchemy, xiii, xv, 22, 35-43, 70, 71, 7111, 75,
78, 80, 87, 91, 92, 93, 98, 99, 105, 108, 126,
188, 336-340, 341, 352, 356, 363. 367. 397
alchitran, 436, 438
alcohol. See aqua vitae
alembic, 3on, 142, 185, 191, 192, 198, 200, 343,
348, 356, 34J, 344, 345
Alessio Piemontesc, xiii, ii8n, 32511
Alexander the Great, 436
Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara, 317
alloying, 207-211, 299-300
alloys, 60-61, 207-211, 224
-coppcr-arsenic, 54, 105
-copper-gold, 208, 365n
-copper-lead, 156-158
-copper-lead-tin-zinc, 300
-copper-silver, 207
-copper-silver-zinc, 365
-copper-tin, 54, 60, 61, 207, 210, 211, 299-
300, 368, 388, 429
-copper-tin-antimony, 92, 388
-copper-tin-arsenic, 388
-copper-tin-lead, 300
-copper-tin-zinc, 300, 429n
-copper-zinc, 54, 70-76
-copper-zinc-arsenic, 105
-gold-copper, 207, 36511
-gold-silver, 208, 209, 365n
-gold-silvcr-copper, 368
-gold-tin, 60
-iron-antimony, 321
-iron-arsenic, 321
-iron-copper, 62, 62n, 66, 321
-iron-tin, 60
-lead, 58
-lead-arsenic, 105
-lead-tin, 60
-silver-copper, 209-210
-silver-gold, 207
-silver-tin, 60
-tin, 59-61
-tin-lead, 60, 207, 211, 369
-tin-lead-antimony, 92, 374
See also brass; bronze; cast iron; pewter;
solder; steel
aludel, 81
alum, feather, 105
alum, natta, 98
alum, rock, 77, 78, 98-105, 117, 185, 187, 194,
196, 361, 365, 383, 407, 408
ahwie difcccia, 10511
See also argol
almnen, 9911, 10511, non
amalgam, 142, 367, 372, 447a
amalgamation, xxm, 30, 47, 137, 142, 155, 383,
384-385
amalgamation mill, 384, 385
Amman, Jost, xii
ammonium chloride, non
See also sal ammoniac
anchors, 370
Andalusia, 56
annealing, 130, 360, 362, 367, 378, 379, 380, 381
Antenor, 357n
antimony, rcgulus, xviii, 91, 92, 374, 375n
antimony (sulphide), 47, 77, 78, 7811, 91-92,
9111, 201-202, 321, 374, 375n, 388
anvils, 370, 18
aqua fortis, 161, 181, 183-188, 191-196, 199,
200, 201, 383, 407, 408, 456a
aqua regia, 383
aqua vitae, 347-349. 4i3. 435. 436. 437, 438
Arabia, 122, 125
Arber, Richard, xxn
architecture, development of, 396-398
argil, 392, 400
argol, t05n, 132, 394
Aristotle, xiv, 26n, 36, 42, 109, 338, 387
Armenia, 99, 117
Armenian salt, no
armor, 370
Arnold of Villanova, 36
arquebus, 224, 226, 308, 321, 412, 413, 431, 432
arsenic, 47, 54, 56, 78n, 105-107, 143, 187, 321,
332, 3Sr. 353. 388, 433. 438
See also orpiment; realgar
asafetida, 372
ashes, for cupeling hearths, 162
-for cupels, 137
-for glass making, 112, 132
PIROTECHNIA 468
ashes {continued)
-forsaltpeter manufacture, 405, 406, 407
asphalt, 436
assaying, 53, 135-141. i59-i6i, 188-191, 202-
205, 359. 360
astrological influences, 31, 46, 79, 94, 115, 395
Asturia, 28
athanor, 354, 354n, 357, 357n, 356, 447a, 45^‘>
aurichalcum, 70
Averroes, 36
Avicenna, 81, 90
azure, 117
-German, 118
-green, 117
azurite, 118
Azzimina steel, 70
azzimina work, 373
Babylonian vitriol, 97
Bacchus, 116
Bactria, 125
Bagnorea, 97
bagpipe, 350
balance, assay, 160, 190, 140
balas ruby, 123
ballista, 430, 437
Barba, A. A., xvm, I55n
Barriani, 109
basilisk (gun), 223
basket, melting in, 289, 289
Bavaria, 60
bearings, 273, 275, 274
Beckmann, J., xxi
bellmetal, 210-211, 300, 388
bellows, 62, 63, 145, 152, 162, 165, 166, 288,
290, 300-306, 64, 165, 166, 167, 168, 171,
289, 290, 301, 302, 304, 305
bells, 260-277
-casting, 268, 289, 296
-design, xvi, 260-263, 272, 270, 271, 453a
-hanging, 273-275
-moulding, 263-272, 327-329, 271, 328
-welding, 275-277
Bergbiichlein, xni
beryl, 119, 121
billon, 36in
Bischaia, 63
blacksmith, 17, 178, 369-374
blanching, 360, 361, 362, 365
blast furnace, 57, 63, 144, 145-152, 153-154,
64, 150, 450a
bleaching, 90
bloodstone, 373, 380
blowholes, 250, 259, 297, 299, 388
Boccheggiano, ix, 63, 67, 306
Bohemia, 28, 60
Boizard, Jean, xvin
bole, 67, 78, 116, 143
Bolseno, 285
bombard, 223, 224, 227, 422
bombs, 429-432
bone ash, 137
borax, 30, 78, 117, 138, 143, 193. I94. 204,
333. 365
boring mill, 309-312, 309, 310, 311
Boyle, Robert, xvm
bran, 366, 367
brass, 54, 70-76, 7on, 113, 172, 210, 292, 300,
338. 365. 375. 378, 4290. 430, 7^
Brescia, 63, 70, 285
brick making, 398-401
brittle metal for bombs, 429, 4290, 430
bronze, 102, 210, 211, 255, 259, 287, 288, 295-
300, 319, 320, 332, 375, 429, 432
buffaloes, 318
building materials, 176, 396-401
burin, 363
Buti, 63
butter, 350
CABOGA, MARIO, xix
Cabot, Sebastian, xxii
cciccia-cornacie (gun), 226
calamine, 54, 7in, 72, 75, 77, 78, 112-113
calcination, 58, 80, 102, 211, 394
calcine, 395n
cameo, 121
camphor, 413, 438
Campiglia, 99
Candia, 108
candlesticks, casting, 327
cane flowers, 219
cane seed, 73
cannon, 223, 225
See also guns
cannon balls 223, 224, 225, 431
-casting, 319-321
-explosive, 429-432
-forging, 321
-stone, 3i9n, 428
Cappadocia, 106
Cara, 113
CarafuUa, 227
carat (gold), 189, 207, 208, 209, 358, 359, 365
carbuncle, 123
Camia, ix, 48
Cartagena, 99, 185, 196
cartridges, 418, 421
Caspian Sea, 109
Castel Sant’Angelo, 275, 442
casting. See bells; brass; bronze; guns; mirrors;
moulding; moulds; pewter; statues; type, etc.
casting pit, 253-255, 258, 267
casts, plaster, 329-332
Celius, 386
CelUni, Benvenuto, xvm, 328n, 36in, 3660,
368n
cement (gold), 103, 203-204
INDEX 469
cement (Portland), 395n
cementation, 54, 142, 202-204, 203n, 359, 4310
cenere alume catina, 1050
See also potash
cennere di bucato, 1620
Cennini, Cennino, Ii8n
ceramics. See glazes; pottery; refractories
cerhottana (gun), 223, 421, 435
chain shot, 431
chalcedony, 121, 380
charcoal, 64, 173-179, 320, znd passim
-for gunpowder, 412, 413, 416
charcoal burning, 177-179, 414, J77, 178
Charles VIII, King of France, 34n, 319, 423
chick-pea, 372
chisels, 216, 307, 308, 363, 370
Chiusdino, 285
Chormanian steel, 70
chrysocoUa, 117, 1170, 365n
cinnabar, 81, 353
Civitavecchia, 99
clay, crucible, 72, 128, 391
-moulding, 73, 218-220, 257-258
-potters, 392-395
cloth clippings, 73, 219, 228
coal, 174
cobalt, 78, ii3n
See also zaffre
coins, giulio, 430
-grosso, 405
-quattrino, 361
See also mint operation
Colle, III
colocasia, 112
Cologne, 70
colombino (hmestone), 24, 56, 399
colophony, 438
color mill, 239, 324, 325
compass, 19, 115, 116
concave mirrors, 347, 385-390
confrustaqno, 1540
copper, 45, 52-55, 102, 112, 113, 169, 2I0-2II,
365. 367-369, 388
-alloying, 210-211, 299-300
-assay, 136
-coinage, 361-362
-desilverizing with lead, 154, 156-158
-mining, 20
-ore, 49-54
-poling, lyin
-refining, 170-171, 171
-rosette, 72, 720, 171, I72n
-sheet, 426
-silver-coated, 367, 369
-smelting, 144-152
-tinned, 300, 342, 348, 369
-working, 172, 210, 333, 367, 368-369
See also brass; bronze
copperas, 98, 1370
coppersmith, 368-369
copper sulphide, 202n, 3650
cores, 220, 221, 228, 230, 232, 235, 240-243,
252, 263-267, 327, 429-430
core supports, 228, 231, 238, 239, 245-248
Cornazzano, Antonio, 222
Corneto, 99
corrosive sublimate. See sublimate
Corsica, 61
cortald (gun), 223
cosmetics, 55, 9in, 342
countermines, 424
covolo, I54n
crackers, 441, 44in
cretaceous earth, 392, 400
crossbows, 370, 373
crucibles, 71, 128, 165, 191, 201, 203, 291-293,
298, 391
crystal form, alum, 100
-antimony, 91
-arsenic, 105
-diamond, 123
-marcasite, 94
-orpiment, 105
crystallization, alum, 103
-saltpeter, 407-408
-vitriol, 97
cucurbit, 3on, 183, 189, 196, 199-200, 343-346,
184, ig7, 343, and passim
culverin, 226
cupelation, 139, 140, 159, 160, 161, 164-169
cupeling furnace, 139, 140
cupeling hearth, 161-169, 165, 166, 167, 168
cupel making, 137-139, 138
Cupid, 445
cuttlebone, 326, 363
Cyprus, 97, 99. 109. 122, 125
Cyrene, iii
Damascus, 373
Damascus steel, 70
Darmstaedter, Ernst, xin, 371 n
date tree, 446
de Caus, Saloman, 377n
depilatories, 107
design of bells, 260-263, 272, 433a
-gun carriages, 312-315
-guns, 223-225
dew, 372
diamond, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123
Dick, A., XXIII
Diderot, Denis, 7in, 2230
dies, 356, 360, 362
Dioscorides, 70n, 90, 9in
distillation, 83-85, 86-89, 183-187, 200, 340-
357. S3, 84, 85, 342, 343, 345, 34S, 34S, 351,
352, 356
distilling bell, 342, 85, 342, 352
divining rod, 14
470 PIROTECHNIA
drawplate, 132, 361, 378, 379, 380, 381
drills, 308, 370
duck fat, 436, 438
dung, 184, 197, 219, 324, 345, 346. 362, 372,
404, 436, 437, 438
Durer, Albrecht, 390
dyeing, 97, 99, 382, 405, 406
Earth, 2i8n
earthquakes, 410, 422
Ebcner, Erasmus, 75n
Eden, Richard, xxi-xxin
eggshells, 372
egg-whites, 103, 163. 239, 253, 258, 267, 327,
354
Egypt, no
elaterin, 350, 438
Elba, 61, 62, 63, 116, 117
elemental composition of materials, 26, 46, 52,
54, 58. 59, 61, 67, 71, 79, 8i, 86,91, 93, 95,99,
105, 108, III, 119, 120, 174, 250, 336, 339,
397. 404
embroidery, 377, 378
emerald, 120, 124
emery, 117, 138, 324, 389
enameling, 141, 338, 366-377
enamels, 92, 338, 366
England, 60, 211
Ercker, Lazarus, xvm, 3on, 75n, i89n, 354n,
447a, 456a
etching, 37in, 372
Ethiopia, 122
Falcon (gun), 226
falconet, 226
Farnesi family, 110
feast days, 440, 442
feeding head, 234, 257, 259, 297, 452a
Ferguson, John, xra, 37in
fern, 112, 127
Ferrandino, King of Naples, 319
festivals, 440-443
ffoulkes, CharlesJohn, 222n
files, 216, 307, 363, 372
fihgree work, 367, 378
fire balls, 412, 437
fire pots, 412, 434-435
firestone, 94, 100
fire tubes, 425-428, 432, 44in, 442, 443
fireworks, xxni, 403, 432, 433, 440-443
flame color used to identify elements, 66
Flanders, 60, 70
flax, 219
flint, 320, 391, 438
flora, relation to mineral deposits, 15, 16, 82,
lOI
Florence, no, 233, 244, 311, 440, 442
flotation, 118, n8n
flour, 328, 330
fluxes, in melting, 72, 75, 194, 296, 332-333.
364, 376
-insmelting, 47, 58, 67, 116, 136, 141, 142,
143
-insoldering, 117, n7n, 365, 369, 372
-inworking iron, 68, 371
foils, 367, 368n
forehearth, 148, 149, 154, 150
forge, 62, 68, 291-292, 320, 369, 18, 292, 304
forge-hammer, 63, 69
forging, 63, 69, 321, 370-371
foundrymen, quaUfications and troubles of,
213-217
Francis, George Grant, I37n
frit, 128, 129, 132
Friuli, DC, 48, 93
Froben, xvn
fulleries, 219
fumosities, 130, 46, 66, 78, 93, 95, 116, 118
fungus, 416
furnace, alum boiling, 102-103
-assaying, 139, 140
-blast, 64, 68, 75n, 145-150, 152, 450a, 64,
150
-brass melting, 71, 292, 76, 292
-calcining, 398, 400
-cementation, 203, 357, 431a
-copper refining, 171
-crucible, 291-294, 292, 293
-cupelation, 165-168
-distillation, 83-85, 88-89, 183, 197, 355-
357. 85, SS, 89, 184, 198, 342, 348, 351, 336.
357, 447a, 456a
-glass melting, 127-129, 134, 449a
-hquation, 157-158, 138
-pottery firing, 393-394. 399-400, 394, 400
-reverberatory, 127,150-151,281-288, 394,
151, 283, 286
-roasting, loi, 150-151
-soldering, 141, 365, 380, 382
-welding, 276, 276
-wind, 56, 150, 191, 203, 293-294, 293
See also forge, melting
fuses, 424, 430, 441. 442
Gabions, 419
galena, 136, I36n, 143, 153
Galon, 7in
garlic, 86, 116
garnet, 124
Gaudin, A. M., ii8n
Geber, 36, I05n, 203n
gems, 55, 117, 119-125, 132, 338, 363, 364,
367. 368
gems, artificial, 125, 132
generation of metals, 26, 26n, 28, 31, 38, 42,
46, 52
INDEX 471
Geoffroy, C. J., yin
Germany, 92, 93, 98, no, 113, 117, 144, 154,
166, 172, 387, 390, 431
gilding, 131, 367, 372-373. 380, 382
-artificial, 377
-removal of, 383
Giorgio Giorgi, Francesco di, 423
girandoles, 441, 442, 44J
glass, 72, 75, 116, 117, 126-133, 143. 183. 199.
332, 338, 372, 390
-colored, 92, 93, 113, 131-132
-melting and working, 126-134, IJ4, 44ga
glass salt, 112, 127
See also sal alkali
Glauber, Rudolf, yin
glazes, 92, 113, 132, 211, 392-394
glue, 232, 233, 330-332, 426, 427
Gobet, Nicolas, xxi
gold, 26-44, 54, 55, 56, 81, 93, 106, 202-209
-alloying, 207-209
-alluvial, 29-30
-amalgamation, 30, 44, 383, 384
-cementation, 202-204, 359
-coinage, 358, 360
-leaf, 117, 233, 326, 367, 372, 377, 381-382
-melting and casting, 193, 291, 294, 363
-parting from silver, 161, 188-194, 19b-
202
-recovery from gilded objects, 383-384
-scale offineness, 208-209
-wire, 377-379
-working, 363-368
See also gilding
gold beating, 382, j82
goldsmith work, 363-367
Goleta, 387
goose fat, 436
Goslar, 750
granite, 120
granulation of gunpowder, 413, 413n
-ofmetal, 191
grape shot, 432
gravity, 58
Grecian pitch (rosin), 331, 332, 369, 433, 434,
435. 436
gum arabic, 327, 367
gun carriages, 312-318
gunmetal, 210, 300, 30on
See also bronze
gunpowder, xxin, 90, in, 224, 242, 312, 407,
408, 409-416, 418, 419, 423, 424, 430, 434,
439. 442
gun shot, 224, 225, 227, 319-321, 428, 429-432
gun sights, 419, 420, 421, 422, 421
guns, aiming, 419-422
-boring, 22311, 309-312, J09, 311
-breeches, 233-234, 243-245, 252-253
-casting, 222n, 255, 259, 296-297
-chambers, 225, 241-243
-design, xvi, 223-225, 312-315, 418
-dressing, 307-308
-emergency, 426-428
-forging, 370
-grooved, 431
-hauling, 317, 318
-loading, 243, 417-419
-moulding, 234-248, 251-252, 257, 452a
-naval, 314
-proving, 312
-sights, 419-421
-sizes and terminology, 222-227, 428
-touch hole, 308
Halle, 20,48, no
hammers, coppersmith’s, 368
hammer work, 364, 368
hardening. See tempering
hardness, 60, 61, 68, 208, 371
Hausbuch, xu, 6611
hearth, melting in, 288-289, 28g
Hebrus river, 29
Hellespont, 99, 106
hempseed oil, 351
Hermes Trismegistos, 36
Hodgkin, E. A., xxiu
honey, 331
Hooke, Robert, xvn, xvui
Hoover, H. C. and L., xi, xm, xxni, 203 n
Hopkins, J. H., xiv, yin
horse radish, 372
horses, 317
Hungary, 28, 112
hunting, 308, 421, 440
Huntsman, Benjamin, xvn
TNCENDIARY MATERIALS, 425, 434-439
i- India, 122, 123
Indian salt, 112
Indian Sea, 116
Indies, 28
Inferno, 72, 357, 455
ink, 375, 376n
inlay, 373
Innsbruck, 20, 48, 167
intaglio, 329
iron, 47, 61-67, 78, 115, 116
-cracked by molten tin, 65
-on gun carriages, 316-318
-ores, 61-66
-smelting, 62-64, 152, 64
-wire, 379-381
-working, 174, 226, 370-373
See also steel
iron, cast, 66, 94, 319, 320, 321, 429, 431
iron filings, 433
iron scale, 103, 136, 197, 219, 324, 369, 391
472 PIROTECHNIA
Ischia, 99
Italy, 34, 35, 49, 61, 70, 92, 99
JOHANNSEN, OTTO, xxi, 16211
Kaolin, 393
Keswick, 13711
kiln, brick, 400, 401, 400
-lime, 398, 399, 400
-pottery, 393, 394
Kritoboulos, 222n
Kunstbiichlein, xra, 37in
IADLE, MELTING IN, 290-291, 290
2 lamps, miner’s, 25
lantern, 442
lapis aceti (facetious), 115
lapis lazuli, 29, 44, 118
lapis olearea (facetious), 115
lathe, 374, 390, 392
La Tolfa, 99, 185, 285
laurel, 437, 442
lead, 54-59
-alloys, 211, 374
-calcination, 58, 133, 394
-cupelation, 164-166
-for assaying, 139, 160, 203 n
-ore, 54-59
-separation from copper, 156-158
-sheets, casting, 376
-silver-free, 203n
-smelting, 56-58, 172-173
-smelting with copper ores, 152-155
lead sulphide, 365n
leather tanning, 99
lega (unit of fineness), 207, 209, 209n, 358,
359. 365
lenses, 390
Leonardo da Vinci, 222n, 28in, 285, 328n, 36in
Le Rocchette, 111
Levant, 185, 196
Libya, 123
lichen, 112, 127
lime, 102,103, 346, 372, 395n, 398-401,406, 436
hme kiln, 398, 399, 400
limestone, 20, 24, 53, 56, 398, 399
linseed (flax seed) oil, 351, 375, 376n, 437
hons, 440
Lipari, 99
liquation of copper-lead cakes, 157-158
htharge, 58, 58n, 136, 143, 164, 169, 172-173
loam. See moulding clay
loam moulding, 268-269
locks, 370
lodestone, 114-116, 123, 127, 438
Lohneiss, G. E., 75n
Lombardy iron, 426
love, XIX, 124, 441, 444-446
lubrication of wire, 378, 379
lute, 103, 183, 184, 197, 200, 372
lutum sapieritiae, 183, 184, 205
lye, 66, 107, 351, 362, 407
Macedonia, 99,122,404
Machiavelli, Niccolo, xxm
Magalone, Bishop of, 127
magistery, 324-325. 407
magnetism, 114-116
malachite, ii7n, 118
malleability, 60, 61, 368
man, primitive, 396
manganese, 77, 78, 7811, 113, 127, 132
manuscript, old, 439
marble, 24, 68, 136, 143, 144
marcasites, 13, 15, 2611, 46, 77, 92n, 92-94,
374. 3750
Marcus Graecus, 436, 43611, 438
Martire, Pietro, xxii
Mary’s black, 365n
marzacotta, 132, 393
Massa, 92, 98, 99
matrix (typecasters’), 375, 376n
matte, 154, I54n, 170-171
Maximilian I, Emperor of Germany, 48, 431
Mazarron, 99, 100
medallions, 328-332
medicines, 55, 78, 81, 87, 90, 92, 107, 117, 123,
337. 339. 342. 404
melting losses, 266
melting metals, 279-300
-bysolar radiation, 387
-in baskets, 289, 298, 289
-in crucibles, 291-294, 298-299, 364, 292,
293
-inforges, 291-292, 320, 292
-inhearths, 288-289, 298, 2S9
-inladles, 290-291, 298, 290
-in reverberatory furnaces, 286-287, 295-
298
-in wind furnaces, 293-294, 293
merchant, disagreeable life of, 50
mercury, 53, 76, 77, 79-83. 07. 142. 354. 367.
372, 373. 383. 384. 416
-calcination, 80
-extraction, 83, 84, 83, 448a
-floats metals, 81
-ore, 82-83
See also amalgamation
Merrett, Christopher, 7in
Merrifield, Mary Philadelphia, ii8n
metal (i.e., gunmetal), 300, 300n
Mieli, Aldo, ix, xx, 66n, 69n, 87n
Milan, 70
military fireworks, 425-428, 433
military tactics, 423, 424, 425, 428, 432, 434
INDEX 473
mill, amalgamation, 384, J83
-crushing, 83
-gunpowder, 414
millstone, 384, 389, 390
miners’ tools, 24, 24
mines, drainage, 19, 20
-lighting, 24
-living quarters, 17, 18
-open cut, 101
-selection ofsite for, 17, 22
-timbering, 18, loi
mines (military), xxni, 422-425, 424
mining, 17-25, 40, 48, 88, 97, loo-ioi, 106
mint, operation, 172, 335, 358-363
mirrors, 92, 385-390
mistion, 26n
modelling clay, 331
Mohammed, 116
moisture in moulds, 74, 249-250, 388
Moncelesi, Bernardino di, xix, 2, 13, 416
Moncibello, 86
Monge, Gaspard, 2230
Montecastello, 113
Montecone, 99
Monte Rotondo, 98, 99
mordants, 97, 99
mortar, 395-401, 3950
mortar (ordnance), 223, 227, 431
mortars, casting, 268, 327
mould dressing, 328, 361, 362, 363
moulding, bells, 260-272
-bombs, 429-431
-bricks, 400
-cannon balls, 319-321, 429
-guns, 234-248, 255-260
-jewelry, 363
-mirrors, 388, 390
-reliefs (plaqucttes), 232-233, 329-332
-statues, 228-234
-statuettes, 330-332
moulding clay, 73, 218-220, 228-234, 257-258,
324
-weight relative to metal, 266
moulds, baking, 73, 74, 249-255, 267, 388
-bronze, 319-320
-clay, 73, 218-221, 228-234, 236-239,
263-266
-cupel, 138
-cuttlebone, 363
-gates and vents in, 73-74, 229, 248-249,
254-255, 258, 319, 327-328
-iron, 320, 361, 362
-lead, 330
-plaster and paste, 328-333
-powder (sand), 326-328, 390
-tuff, 374, 377, 388
-typecaster’s, 375, 376
See also casting, cores, moulding
Mount Amiata, 98
Mount Avanzo, 48
Mount Etna, 86
Moxon, Joseph, xviii
muffle furnace, 139, 140
Munster, Sebastian, xxn
Murano, 131
musical instruments, strings for, 378
musket, 226, 308, 321, 327, 370
mustard seed oil, 351
Mytilene, 100
Nails, 317,427,430
Naples, 99, 319, 423
naval warfare, 426, 433
Navarro, Pietro, 423
Navo, Curtio, xix, 2
necromancy, 14
Neri, Antonio, Ii8n
nicolo, 120
niello, 93, 141, 365-366, 3650
niter, 127, 436
See also saltpeter
nitric acid. See aqua fortis
nitro, III
See also niter
nitriim, non, 404
Norton, Thomas, 1980
nut gall, 372
OCHRE, 78, 116, 136, 143, 389, 390
oil, petroleum, 434, 436, 437
oil, rock, 437, 438
oil of almonds, 351
-antimony, 91
-arsenic, 351
-bitter almonds, 372
-camphor, 438
-egg yolks, 351, 436, 437
-flaxseed, 351
-grain, 351
-hempsecd, 351
-iron, 351
-juniper, 436, 437
-linseed, 437
-mustard seed, 351
-nutmeg, 351
-nuts, 351
-saltpeter, 351
-sesame, 351
-sublimate, 351, 362
-sulphur, 90, 351, 352, 434, 437, 438
-tartar, 351
-vitriol, 350
oils, extraction, 349-352
olive oil mill, 83
optics, 386-388, 390
ores, preparation for smelting, 56, 141-145
-roasting, 44, 46, 65, 101-102, 137, 1370,
141, 142, ISO
PIROTECHNIA 474
ores {continued)
-signs of, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 46, 53, 56, 60,
65, 66, loi
-sorting, 65, loi, 141
-washing, 44, 57, 137, 141
See also mining; smelting; and entries under
individual metals
organ pipes, 376
orpiment, 78, 105-107, 354
oven, mould drying, 73
oxen, 317. 318
ox hoofs, 372
PACTOLUS, river, 29
Paduano, Giovan, xix, 3760
painter’s colors, azure, 117
-base for, 401
-bole, 117
-German azure, 118
-green azure, 117
-ochre, 116
-ultramarine, 118
Palermo, 289
Palio, 441
papier-mach^, 440
Pariginus, 36
Paris, 328
Parsons, W. B., xi
parting with antimony, 201-202
-with nitric acid, 161, 181, 188-194, 19b-
200
-with sulphur, 201-202
Partington, J. R., xi
passavolanti (gun), 223, 224, 227
paste, 331, 332, 367. 426
patterns, 73-74. 220, 221, 228, 234-237, 243,
256-257, 319, 329-332, 452a
pelican, 349, 349
Pelori, Giambattista, 332
peperino, 285, 320, 391
Percy, John, xxiii, yin
Perez de Vargas, xviii, xxi, 1540
perspective, 385, 387
Peru, 28
Peruzzi, Baldassare, x, 131
petard, 4280
petroleum oil, 434, 436, 437
Petrucci, Pandolfo, ix, 63
Pettus, John, 3540
pewter, 60, 92, 211, 374-377
Piacenza, no
pickhng, 360, 361, 364, 372
pig fat, 296, 319, 434
pikes, 427, 433, 433
Piombino, 99
pistols, 224, 226, 412
pitch, 388, 436, 442
pith, 413, 416
plaster of Paris, 231, 232, 233, 266, 319, 329-
330. 331. 332, 388, 401, 429
-calcining, 401
Plato, 338, 387
Pliny, XI, 28, 28n, 32, 36, 580, 62n, 70, yon, 90,
9in, 99, 99n, 107, 109, no, non, 116, 117,
126, 203n, 366n, 404
plumbago, 93
Po, river, 29, 31
poisoning, arsenic, 106, 107
-diamond, 123
-mercury, 81
-sulphur, 87
-zinc, 76
pohshing, 55, 61, 122, 123, 125, 366, 372, 374,
389-390
Pontus, 99
Pope Clement VII, x, 36in
-Julius II, 430n
-Nicolas V, 122
-Paul III, 275
-PiusII, 99
Popes, consecration, 442
popguns, 416
porphyry, 120
porphyry (grinding slab), 239, 253, 324
Portugal, ny
potash, 105, i05n, 112, n2n, 132, 394
potter’s wheel, 390, 391, 392, 594
pottery, 113, ny, 129, 133, 219, 391-395
powders for casting, 324-328
pozzuolana, 398
Pozzuoli, 86, 99
printing, xv, xvm, 374-376
printing press, 375, 376n
Probicrbiichlein, xiii
profit, 16, 17, 21, 49, 105, 384
prospecting, 13, 14-16, 30
pumice, 324, 366, 389
punch, 376
putrefaction as source ofheat, 345-346, 437, 438
putty powder, 550, 211, 389, 390
pyrite. Sec marcasite
pyrolusite, 11311
Quenching, 67,69,371,3710,372
quicklime, 346, 372, 399, 406, 436
quicksilver. See mercury
quince seeds, 367
RAM’S HORN, 332, 365, 371, 372, 429
ram’s horn ashes, 137, 1370, 239, 253, 391
Raymond Lully, 36
Read, John, xm
realgar, 106, 321, 332
rectifying column, 34S
Red Book of the Exchequer, 203n
refractories, 68, 71, 128, 146, 285, 320, 391
regulus, 91, 106, 375n
INDEX 475
remedy, 358, 35811, 360
retort, 350, 438, 351
Rhine, river, 28
Rhone, river, 127
Rickard, T. A., xi
RiefFel, xxi
roasting ores, 44, 46, 65,101-102,137,141-142,
150
rock alum. See alum
rock crystal, 119
rockets, 433, 441, 4410, 442, 443
rock oil, 437, 438
rock-salt, 107, 112, 117
rolling, 36in, 377n
Roman vitriol, 97
Rome, 442
roofing sheets, 376-377
roofing tiles, 400
Rosenberg, Marc, 365n
rosin, 332, 442
See also Grecian pitch
Rottenberg, 48
ruby, 120
Rupert, Prince, yin
SAFFRON, 377n, 382
Saint Remy, P. S. de, xvni, 223n, 452a
saker (gun), 226
sal alembroth, 112, ii2n
sal alkali, 108, 112, 127, 132, 143, 204, 333,
364. 372
sal ammoniac, 81, 108, 110-112, non, 117,
204, 333. 364, 372, 376, 383, 416, 438
sal ammoiiiacus, non
sal hammoniacus, non
salnitro, in
See also saltpeter
Salo, XIX, 13, 113
Salso Maggiore, no
Salso Minore, no
salt, 107-110, 112, 117, 203, 325, 333, 360, 365,
372, 384, 433
-extraction from salt waters, 108-110
saltpeter, xxiii, 30, 77, no-ni, 136, 143, 165,
185, 194, 196, 203n, 296, 332, 352, 365, 383,
404-409, 412, 413, 415, 416, 434, 436, 437,
438
-extraction, 404-409, 4050
salts, 77, 1050, 107-112
saltwort, 112, 127
sampling, 160, 189, i89n
sand, 127, 132,143, 320, 327, 328, 371, 389, 393,
398
sand bath, 197, 342-344, 198
sand casting, 324-328, 32711
sandstone, 120
San Filippo, 86, 98
San Quirico, no
Santa Fiore, 92, 98
sapphire, 120, 125
sarcocolla, 436
Sardinia, 99
sardonyx, 120
Sarton, George, xi
Savoyard bell founders, 289
saws, 307, 372
Sbozzo, 48
scaling, 53, 364, 369
Schio, 45, 48
screw press, 36in, 375, 376n
sculpture, 228-234
Scythia, 28, 125
sea, saltiness of, 109
Secrets of Alexis, xm, ii8n, 325n
segregation, 259, 26on, 297
semiminerals, 26n, 77, 78
serpentine, 120
shipwrecks, 50, 51
shotguns, 223
Sicily, 61, 86, 99
Siena, 62, 67, 99, no, 440, 442
Silesia, 28
silver, 20, 45-48. 56, 92, 93, 135, 186, 187, 195-
196, 233, 291,294, 326, 361, 365, 369, 372, 373
-alloying, 209
-amalgamation, 47, 142, 384
-assaying, 139-141, 189-193
-coinage, 358, 361-362
-cupelation, 139-140, 161-169
-enameling, 366
-gilding, 367, 380, 382
-melting, 291
-ore, 45-48, 56
-parting, 161, 171, 191, 1851-194, 196-200,
201-202
-removal from copper, 154, 156-158
-scale of fineness, 209, 2090
silver chloride, i86n, 194-195, 199
silver-plated copper, 380
silver solder, 211, 365, 367, 369, 372
silver sulphide, 202, 3650
slag, 68. 136, 143, 154, 155, 168
slate, 120
smelting, charcoal for, 174-175
-copper ore, 144-152
-effects of arsenic, 106
-inblast furnace, 148-149
-inlead bath, 44, 47, 142, 143, 144
-inreverberatory furnace, 149-150, 155
-iron ore, 62-65, 152
-lead ore, 56-58
-mixed ores, 57, 145, 158
-trials, 136
-use of coal, 174
smithy work, 369-375
snails, 103, I03n
snail shells, 372
soap, 30, 194, 333, 362, 371
PIROTECHNIA 476
soda ash. See ashes, potash, sal alkali
soda plant, 112
sodium silicate, 3250
soil, saltpetery, ill, 405, 409
solder, 211, 365, 369, 372
soldering, 117, 1170, 141, 365, 372, 377, 380,
382
Soliman, Ottoman Emperor, 122
sound, 261, 411, 412
Sovana, 92, 98
Spain, 99
spectacles, 390
speculum metal, 388, 388n
spheres. See mirrors
spingard (gun), 223, 428
spun gold, 382
squibs, 433, 44in, 442
stamps, 83, 414
statuary bronze, 210
statues, casting, 228-234
steel, xxm, 65, 67-70, 370-373. 378, 39°
-quenching, 371-372
-tempering, 69, 69n, 307, 308, 309, 311,
371, 37in, 372
Strabo, 2030
sublimate, 81, 142, 332, 351, 354, 364, 372, 384
sublimation, 339-34°, 352-354
sulphur, 47, 77, 81, 86^, 98, loi, 329, 354,
364, 383, 409, 413, 433, 434, 436, 438
-extraction from ores 88-90, 55, 5p
-use in parting silver and gold, 201-202
sundials, portable, 116
sweepings, treatment of, 155, 172, 195, 199,
205, 384-385
Syria, 127
Tagus, river, 29
talc, 106
tallow, 331, 332, 362, 388
tanneries, 219
tar, 331
tarsia work, 373
tartar, 105, 132, 296, 332, 360, 365, 372, 388,
394, 436, 438
temperature indicators, 376
temper colors, 308, 368, 3680, 371
tempering, 69, 690, 307, 308, 309, 371, 3710,
372
(erra, 2i8n
terra sigillata, 116, 11611
Theobald, Wilhelm, xii
Theophilus, xu, 710, 2030, 28in
Thomas Aquinas, 36
Thompson, Daniel V., Jr., xn, ii8n
Thorndike, Lynn, xi
Tiberius, Emperor of Rome, 127
Ticino, river, 29, 31
tiles, 400
tin, 54. 59-61, 73, 136, 168, 207, 211, 332, 333,
368, 374-376, 388, 429
-calcined, 133, 211, 324, 389, 390, 394
-foil, 377
-in bronze, 259, 297, 300, 332, 368
-sheets, casting, 376
-smelting, 60
tin cry, 60, 211
tinning, 369
tinsel, 378
Tolfa. See La Tolfa
tongues of fire, 412, 433
touchstone, 120, 203 n, 204, 209, 359
toughness, 60, 61, 368
tragacanth, 329, 330
Travale, 98
travertine, 24, 56, 399
treadmill, 304, 305, jog, jio, j8i
tripoli, 324, 366, 374, 389, 390
tuff. III, 143, 324, 327, 371, 374, 377, 388
Tunis, 387
turpentine, 328, 350, 388, 435, 437, 438, 442
Tuscany, 61, no, in, 113
tutty, 54, 75, 7511
type metal, 374-376, 3740, 3760
ULM, 387
ultramarine blue, 117-118, n8n
urinals, 343, 356
urine, 204, 324, 328, 360, 364, 369, 372, 438
VALCAMONICA, 70, 285
Val d’Elsa, in
varnish, 372, 375, 37611, 436
uetta di piombo, 13611
Venice, 48, 92, 98, 211, 387
vents, 229, 248-249
Venus, 115, 445
verdigris, n7n, 142, 364, 365, 372, 383, 384
Vespucci, Amerigo, xxii
Vincent, jaques, XX
vine ash, 324
vinegar, 106, 142, 204, 324, 351, 364, 372, 384,
413, 415, 442
Vitello, 386
Viterbo mountains, 113
vitriol, 77, 78, 95-98, 142, 18511, 187, 203, 383,
438
volcanos, 87
Volterra, 98, 99, no
Vulcan, 445
WASH ASHES, 16211 and passim
water, associated with minerals, 21, 66
-mineral-bearing, 14, 15
-salt, 108-110
water baths, 344-346, 344, 345
water pipes, 376
INDEX 477
water-power, advantages of, 22, 147, 152, 301,
306
water wheel, 145, 147, 301, 301, 302, 305
wax, lubricant in wire drawing, 378-379
-moulding, 228-234, 244, 266, 329-331,
429. 430
-zagora, 438
wealth, means of acquiring, 21, 49-51
weathering ores, 95, loi, 405, 409
weights, assay, xni, 140,160-161,189,190, 2030
weights and measures, xvi, 457a-458a
welding, 275-277, 309, 370, 371
wheels, 313-317
Whitehorn, Peter, xxii, xxm, 4130, 4290
white lead, 138, 330, 331, 346
Wilham of Occam, 36
wire, 328, 347, 348, 377-381
wire drawing, 377-381, 379, 380
women, bleaching hair, 90
-making less ugly, 55
-patient, 382
-pregnant, 115, 123
wood, structural, 18, 234, 237, 256, 314, 318
wood fuel, 164, 166, 169, 174, 175, 295, 299
wool, dyeing, 97, 99
wool cloth clippings, 183, 197, 219, 220
work lead, 154-156, 1540, 164
ZAFFRE, 77, 113
zinc, 7in, 78n
See also brass; calamine; tutty
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THE PIROTECHNIA of
V\NNOCCIO BIRINGUCCIO
The Classic Sixteenth-Century
Treatise on Metals and Metallurgy
Vannoccio Binnguccio was the Siennese metallurgist and armament maker who wrote
history’s first clear, comprehensive work on metallurgy. First published in 1540,
shortly after Biringuccio’s death. The Pirotechnia is a lavishly illustrated volume that
describes in detail the equipment and processes of 16th-centary mining, smelting and
metalworking.
For centuries, this famous work has been a standard reference in the field of metals and
metallurgy. It is especially valuable today as a vital source of information on the state
of technology in the 15th and 16th centuries.
The book first addresses the principal ores—gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and iron—
and the making of steel and brass. It then introduces semiminerals, from quicksilver
and sulphur to manganese and rock crystal, and describes the assaying and preparing
of ores for smelting. Other topics include the making of alloys, the art of casting,
methods of melting metals, and the making of fireworks.
This edition of The Pirotechnia has been reprinted from the authoritative translation
published by The American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, and is
complete with an nistorical introduction to Biringuccio and his work. It also contains
reproductions the 94 woodcuts from the original 154C edition, which depict
centuries-old technologies ranging from the recovery of mercury with a distilling bell
to a machine for boring guns.
Unabridged Dover (1990) republication of the edition published by The American
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, 1959. 94 woodcuts. Index. Bibliog¬
raphy. 2 Forewords. Introduca^ m. Appendixes. 507pp. 6/8 x 9/4. Paperbound.
ALSO AVAILABLE
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A History of MechanicalInventions, Revised Edition, Abbott Payson Usher. 46Ipp.
5?^ X 8%. 25593-X Pa. $10.95
The Various and Ingenious Machines of Agostino Ramelli: A Classic,Sixteenth￾Century Illustrated Treatise on Technology, Agostino Ramellk 608wp^ 9 x 12.
25497 -6 Cl. $34.95 ]
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Free Complete Dover Catalog available upon request. '
ISBN 0-^atD-E^13^-4
$1E.^S INUSA 9 780486 26134
90 DO
Cover design by Paul E. Kennedy